1. Numerous species shift or expand their ranges poleward in response to climate change. Even when expanding species follow their climatic niches, expanding range margin populations are likely to face unfamiliar environmental conditions and thus natural selection for local adaptation.
2. The wall brown butterfly (Lasiommata megera) has expanded northward in Sweden in the years 2000–2020, most likely as a result of climate change, and has previously been shown to have evolved local adaptations to northern daylength conditions. This evolution has occurred despite hypothesised genetic constraints to adaptation at range margins.
3. We studied local adaptation to winter conditions in four of the previously-studied L. megera populations, using a common garden laboratory experiment with a warm and short, an intermediate, and a cold and long winter treatment. We compared the winter and post-winter survival of caterpillars from two southern core range and two northern range margin populations in Sweden.
4. During the experiment, we measured metabolic rates of a subset of diapausing caterpillars to test whether populations differ in metabolic suppression during diapause. Further, we measured supercooling points, which reflect lower lethal temperature in L. megera, of the same subset of caterpillars. We also compared supercooling points between L. megera and three closely related species with more northern distributions.
5. Few individuals survived the coldest treatment all the way to successful adult emergence, so L. megera seems susceptible to cold winters. Individuals of northern descent did not survive cold winters any better than individuals from southern populations. Similarly, there were no signs of local adaptation in metabolic rates or supercooling points. The comparison among species did not reveal any clear relationship between geographical distribution and supercooling point.
6. Although northern winters probably exert strong selection on L. megera, we provide comprehensive evidence for the lack of local adaptation to winter conditions. This contrasts with the previous finding of quickly evolved local adaptation in diapause timing, highlighting the need to consider how traits associated with different seasons differ in how they may evolve and facilitate climate change-induced range expansions.

Photoperiod is a common cue for seasonal plasticity and phenology, but climate change can create cue-environment mismatches for organisms that rely on it. Evolution could potentially correct these mismatches, but phenology often depends on multiple plastic decisions made during different life stages and seasons that may evolve separately. For example, Pararge aegeria (Speckled wood butterfly) has photoperiod-cued seasonal life history plasticity in two different life stages: larval development time and pupal diapause. We tested for climate change-associated evolution of this plasticity by replicating common garden experiments conducted on two Swedish populations 30 years ago. We found evidence for evolutionary change in the contemporary larval reaction norm-although these changes differed between populations-but no evidence for evolution of the pupal reaction norm. This variation in evolution across life stages demonstrates the need to consider how climate change affects the whole life cycle to understand its impacts on phenology.

Seasons impose different selection pressures on organisms through contrasting environmental conditions. How such seasonal evolutionary conflict is resolved in organisms whose lives span across seasons remains underexplored. Through field experiments, laboratory work, and citizen science data analyses, we investigate this question using two closely related butterflies (Pieris rapae and P. napi). Superficially, the two butterflies appear highly ecologically similar. Yet, the citizen science data reveal that their fitness is partitioned differently across seasons. Pieris rapae have higher population growth during the summer season but lower overwintering success than do P. napi. We show that these differences correspond to the physiology and behavior of the butterflies. Pieris rapae outperform P. napi at high temperatures in several growth season traits, reflected in microclimate choice by ovipositing wild females. Instead, P. rapae have higher winter mortality than do P. napi. We conclude that the difference in population dynamics between the two butterflies is driven by seasonal specialization, manifested as strategies that maximize gains during growth seasons and minimize harm during adverse seasons, respectively.

Aim: Leaves support a large diversity of fungi, which are known to cause plant diseases, induce plant defences or influence leaf senescence and decomposition. To advance our understanding of how foliar fungal communities are structured and assembled, we assessed to what extent leaf flush and latitude can explain the within- and among-tree variation in foliar fungal communities.

Location: A latitudinal gradient spanning c. 20 degrees in latitude in Europe.

Taxa: The foliar fungal community associated with a foundation tree species, the pedunculate oak Quercus robur.

Methods: We examined the main and interactive effects of leaf flush and latitude on the foliar fungal community by sampling 20 populations of the pedunculate oak Quercus robur across the tree's range. We used the ITS region as a target for characterization of fungal communities using DNA metabarcoding.

Results: Species composition, but not species richness, differed between leaf flushes. Across the latitudinal gradient, species richness was highest in the central part of the oak's distributional range, and foliar fungal community composition shifted along the latitudinal gradient. Among fungal guilds, the relative abundance of plant pathogens and mycoparasites was lower on the first leaf flush, and the relative abundance of plant pathogens and saprotrophs decreased with latitude.

Conclusions: Changes in community composition between leaf flushes and along the latitudinal gradient were mostly a result of species turnover. Overall, our findings demonstrate that leaf flush and latitude explain 5%–22% of the small- and large-scale spatial variation in the foliar fungal community on a foundation tree within the temperate region. Using space-for-time substitution, we expect that foliar fungal community structure will change with climate warming, with an increase in the abundance of plant pathogens and mycoparasites at higher latitudes, with major consequences for plant health, species interactions and ecosystem dynamics.

Diapause is a common adaptation for overwintering in insects that is characterized by arrested development and increased tolerance to stress and cold. While the expression of specific candidate genes during diapause have been investigated, there is no general understanding of the dynamics of the transcriptional landscape as a whole during the extended diapause phenotype. Such a detailed temporal insight is important as diapause is a vital aspect of life cycle timing. Here, we performed a time-course experiment using RNA-Seq on the head and abdomen in the butterfly Pieris napi. In both body parts, comparing diapausing and nondiapausing siblings, differentially expressed genes are detected from the first day of pupal development and onwards, varying dramatically across these formative stages. During diapause there are strong gene expression dynamics present, revealing a preprogrammed transcriptional landscape that is active during the winter. Different biological processes appear to be active in the two body parts. Finally, adults emerging from either the direct or diapause pathways do not show large transcriptomic differences, suggesting the adult phenotype is strongly canalized. 

Many insects exhibit geographical variation in voltinism, the number of generations produced per year. This includes high-latitude species in previously glaciated areas, meaning that divergent selection on life cycle traits has taken place during or shortly after recent colonization. Here, we use a population genomics approach to compare a set of nine Scandinavian populations of the butterfly Pararge aegeria that differ in life cycle traits (diapause thresholds and voltinism) along both north-south and east-west clines. Using a de novo-assembled genome, we reconstruct colonization histories and demographic relationships. Based on the inferred population structure, we then scan the genome for candidate loci showing signs of divergent selection potentially associated with population differences in life cycle traits. The identified candidate genes include a number of components of the insect circadian clock (timeless, timeless2, period, cryptochrome and clockwork orange). Most notably, the gene timeless, which has previously been experimentally linked to life cycle regulation in P. aegeria, is here found to contain a novel 97-amino acid deletion unique to, and fixed in, a single population. These results add to a growing body of research framing circadian gene variation as a potential mechanism for generating local adaptation of life cycles.

Climate change allows species to expand polewards, but non-changing environmental features may limit expansions. Daylength is unaffected by climate and drives life cycle timing in many animals and plants. Because daylength varies over latitudes, poleward-expanding populations must adapt to new daylength conditions. We studied local adaptation to daylength in the butterfly Lasiommata megera, which is expanding northwards along several routes in Europe. Using common garden laboratory experiments with controlled daylengths, we compared diapause induction between populations from the southern-Swedish core range and recently established marginal populations from two independent expansion fronts in Sweden. Caterpillars from the northern populations entered diapause in clearly longer daylengths than those from southern populations, with the exception of caterpillars from one geographically isolated population. The northern populations have repeatedly and rapidly adapted to their local daylengths, indicating that the common use of daylength as seasonal cue need not strongly limit climate-induced insect range expansions.

1. Diapause is considered an important adaptation for survival of winter; however, insects often enter diapause long before its onset. Thus, diapausing insects must also be able to survive these prewinter conditions which warm temperatures could make quite energetically taxing despite relative inactivity.
2. We tested for both immediate and delayed fitness effects of prewinter conditions in diapausing Pieris napi butterfly pupae, experimentally exposing them to different prewinter treatments in a factorial design. We placed diapausing pupae at one of three temperatures (15, 20 and 25°C) for 1 to 16 weeks, followed by the same standardized winter for all individuals.
3. We monitored survival of pupae at multiple points during the experiment, including after winter, as well as their change in mass. For a subset of individuals, we also made repeated metabolic measurements.
4. We found substantial weight loss during prewinter warm periods, greater during longer prewinter treatments at higher temperatures. This weight loss was associated with elevated metabolic rates at higher temperatures which increased over the duration of the prewinter treatment.
5. Although we found little prewinter mortality associated with these conditions, mortality was much greater post-winter for individuals in long, warm prewinter treatments and the dry mass of adults that did survive these conditions was lower, highlighting the need to understand chronic or delayed effects of stress on fitness.
6. Ultimately, we found substantial fitness consequences of prewinter conditions for a diapausing insect. Given that climate change will make these prewinter periods both longer and more intense, it will be important to understand how dormant organisms tolerate or reduce the length of these dormant, inactive periods.

1. Temperature influences the rate of most biological processes. Nonlinearities in the thermal reaction norms of such processes complicate intuitive predictions of how ectothermic organisms respond to naturally fluctuating temperatures, and by extension, to climate warming. Additionally, organisms developing close to the ground experience a highly variable microclimate landscape that often is poorly captured by coarse standard climate data.
2. Using a butterfly population in central Sweden as a model, we quantified the consequences of small-scale temperature variation on phenology, emergence synchrony and number of annual reproductive cycles (voltinism). By combining empirical microclimate and thermal performance data, we project development of individual green-veined white butterflies (Pieris napi) across 110 sites in an exceptionally high-resolved natural microclimate landscape.
3. We demonstrate that differences among microclimates just meters apart can have large impacts on the rate of development and emergence synchrony of neighbouring butterflies. However, when considering the full development from egg to adult, these temporal differences were reduced in some scenarios, due to negative correlations in development times among life stages. The negative correlations were caused by temperatures at some sites beginning to exceed the optimum for development as the season progressed. Indeed, which sites were optimal for fast development could change across the lifetimes of individual butterflies, that is, ‘fast’ sites could become ‘slow’ sites. Thus, from a thermal point of view, there seem to be no consistently optimal microsites. Importantly, the fast sites were not always the warmest sites. We showed that such unintuitive effects could play an important role in the regulation of phenological synchrony and voltinism in insects, as most sites consistently favoured two generations. The results were generally robust across years and three different egg-laying dates.
4. Using high-resolved empirical climate data on organism-relevant temporal and spatial scales and considering nonlinear responses to temperature, we demonstrated the large and unintuitive population-level consequences of locally and temporarily high temperatures. We suggest to—whenever possible—incorporate species- and life stage-specific nonlinear responses to temperature when studying the effects of natural microclimate variation and climate change on organisms.

1. Climate change has been shown to advance spring phenology, increase the number of insect generations per year (multivoltinism) and increase pathogen infection levels.

2. However, we lack insights into the effects of plant spring phenology and the biotic environment on the preference and performance of multivoltine herbivores and whether such effects extend into the later part of the growing season.

3. To this aim, we used a multifactorial growth chamber experiment to examine the influence of spring phenology on plant pathogen infection, and how the independent and interactive effects of spring phenology and plant pathogen infection affect the preference and performance of multigenerational attackers (the leaf miner Tischeria ekebladella and the aphid Tuberculatus annulatus) on the pedunculate oak in the early, mid and late parts of the plant growing season.

4. Pathogen infection was highest on late phenology plants, irrespective of whether inoculations were conducted in the early, mid or late season. The leaf miner consistently preferred to oviposit on middle and late phenology plants, as well as healthy plants, during all parts of the growing season, whereas we detected an interactive effect between spring phenology and pathogen infection on the performance of the leaf miner. Aphids preferred healthy, late phenology plants during the early season, healthy plants during the mid season, and middle phenology plants during the late season, whereas aphid performance was consistently higher on healthy plants during all parts of the growing season.

5. Our findings highlight that the impact of spring phenology on pathogen infection and the preference and performance of insect herbivores is not restricted to the early season, but that its imprint is still present - and sometimes equally strong - during the peak and end of the growing season. Plant pathogens generally negatively affected herbivore preference and performance, and modulated the effects of spring phenology. We conclude that spring phenology and pathogen infection are two important factors shaping the preference and performance of multigenerational plant attackers, which is particularly relevant given the current advance in spring phenology, pathogen outbreaks and increase in voltinism with climate change.