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Eklund, Britta
Publications (10 of 30) Show all publications
Lagerström, M., Yngsell, D., Eklund, B. & Ytreberg, E. (2019). Identification of commercial and recreational vessels coated with banned organotin paint through screening of tin by portable XRF. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 362, 107-114
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Identification of commercial and recreational vessels coated with banned organotin paint through screening of tin by portable XRF
2019 (English)In: Journal of Hazardous Materials, ISSN 0304-3894, E-ISSN 1873-3336, Vol. 362, p. 107-114Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The most effective biocide used historically in antifouling paints is tributyltin (TBT). However, due to its extreme toxicity to non-target organisms and its persistence in the environment, the use of TBT and other organotin compounds (OTCs) was restricted in EU on leisure boats and ships in 1989 and 2003, respectively. Nevertheless, studies worldwide still report TBT to be released from both ships and leisure boats. Here, we present a new application for a field portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) used for screening for organotin paint through measurements of tin (Sn) on leisure boats and ships. Measurements on ships built after the restrictions showed concentrations of up to 68 mu g Sn/cm(2), likely due to impurities of inorganic Sn, as shown through chemical analysis of 21 organotin-free paints. A threshold value of 100 mu g Sn/cm(2) is suggested, where exceedance indicates presence of OTCs. Screening with the XRF method showed 10% of the commercial vessels (n = 30) and 23-29% of leisure boats (n = 693, investigated in this and in a previous study) to hold concentrations exceeding 100 mu g Sn/cm(2). The XRF technique presented here provides a useful tool for quick screening and identification of vessels holding banned organotin paint.

Keywords
XRF, Antifouling paint, TBT, Organotin compounds, Tin
National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-162799 (URN)10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.09.038 (DOI)000449127500012 ()30236930 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2018-12-27 Created: 2018-12-27 Last updated: 2025-02-07Bibliographically approved
Eklund, B. & Watermann, B. (2018). Persistence of TBT and copper in excess on leisure boat hulls around the Baltic Sea. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(15), 14595-14605
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Persistence of TBT and copper in excess on leisure boat hulls around the Baltic Sea
2018 (English)In: Environmental Science and Pollution Research, ISSN 0944-1344, E-ISSN 1614-7499, Vol. 25, no 15, p. 14595-14605Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

A handheld XRF-analyzer specially calibrated for measurements of metals on plastic boat hulls has been used on leisure boats in Denmark (DK), Finland (FI), and Germany (DE). The results on tin and copper are presented as mu g metal/cm(2). Tin is a proxy for the occurrence of organotin compounds on the boat. Two or three sites were visited in each country and between 25 and 90 boats were measured at each site. Every boat was measured at six to eight places, and the results are presented both as mean and median values. Linear regression of mean to median values of the 377 data pairs shows high relationship with R-2 = 0.9566 for tin and R-2 of 0.9724 for copper and thus both ways of calculation may be used. However, for regulative use, it is suggested that all individual measurements on each boat should be presented and used for decisions of removal or sealing of boat hulls. The results are compared with published data from different parts of Sweden, i.e., boats in fresh water, brackish water, and salt water. The results show that tin with mean values > 50 mu g Sn/cm(2) is still found on 42, 24, and 23% of the boats in DK, FI, and DE, respectively. The corresponding percentages based on median values are 38, 22, and 18% for DK, FI, and DE, respectively. The variation among boats is high with a maximum mean value of 2000 mu g Sn/cm(2). As comparison, one layer of an old TBT antifouling paint Hempels Hard racing superior, corresponds to 300 mu g Sn/cm(2). The percentage of boats with tin >400 mu g Sn/cm(2) content based on mean values was 10% in DK, 5% in FI, and 1% in DE. The corresponding median values were 9, 6, and 1% for DK, FI, and DE. Copper, >100 mu g Cu/cm(2), was detected on all measured boats in DK and in DE and on all but 3% of the FI boats. One layer of Hempels MilleXtra corresponds to I' 4000 mu g Cu/cm(2). The recommendation on the can is to apply two layers. The proportion of boats with higher mean copper values than 8000 mu g Cu/cm(2) was 51, 56, and 61 for boats in DK, FI, and DE, respectively. The proportion based on median values > 8000 mu g Cu/cm(2) was 50, 54, and 61% for DK, FI, and DE. The conclusion is that many leisure boats around the Baltic Sea still display or possess antifouling paints containing organotin compounds and that more than half of the boats have more copper than needed for one boat season according to the paint producers. Much of these known toxic compounds will probably be released into the environment and harm the biota. The calibrated XRF-method, intended for area measurements on boat hulls, is an easy and cheap way to detect boats with organotin compounds and high copper content. We recommend environmental authorities to use this method for identification of such boats and to use the results for requesting measures to minimize further leakage to the environment.

Keywords
TBT, Copper, Concentrations on boat hulls, XRF-measurements
National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-157792 (URN)10.1007/s11356-018-1614-1 (DOI)000433495500030 ()29532372 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2018-07-26 Created: 2018-07-26 Last updated: 2025-02-07Bibliographically approved
Ytreberg, E., Lagerström, M., Holmqvist, A., Eklund, B., Elwing, H., Dahlström, M., . . . Dahlström, M. (2017). A novel XRF method to measure environmental release of copper and zinc from antifouling paints. Environmental Pollution, 225, 490-496
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A novel XRF method to measure environmental release of copper and zinc from antifouling paints
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2017 (English)In: Environmental Pollution, ISSN 0269-7491, E-ISSN 1873-6424, Vol. 225, p. 490-496Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The release of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) from vessels and leisure crafts coated with antifouling paints can pose a threat to water quality in semi-enclosed areas such as harbors and marinas as well as to coastal archipelagos. However, no reliable, practical and low-cost method exists to measure the direct release of metals from antifouling paints. Therefore, the paint industry and regulatory authorities are obliged to use release rate measurements derived from either mathematical models or from laboratory studies. To bridge this gap, we have developed a novel method using a handheld X-Ray Fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) to determine the cumulative release of Cu and Zn from antifouling paints. The results showed a strong linear relationship between XRF Kα net intensities and metal concentrations, as determined by ICP-MS. The release of Cu and Zn were determined for coated panels exposed in harbors located in the Baltic Sea and in Kattegat. The field study showed salinity to have a strong impact on the release of Cu, i.e. the release increased with salinity. Contrary, the effect of salinity on Zn was not as evident. As exemplified in this work, the XRF method also makes it possible to identify the governing parameters to the release of Cu and Zn, e.g. salinity and type of paint formulation. Thus, the XRF method can be used to measure environmentally relevant releases of metallic compounds to design more efficient and optimized antifouling coatings.

National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-144795 (URN)10.1016/j.envpol.2017.03.014 (DOI)000401679200053 ()28341326 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2017-07-12 Created: 2017-07-12 Last updated: 2025-02-07Bibliographically approved
Bighiu, M. A., Eriksson-Wiklund, A.-K. & Eklund, B. (2017). Biofouling of leisure boats as a source of metal pollution. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(1), 997-1006
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Biofouling of leisure boats as a source of metal pollution
2017 (English)In: Environmental Science and Pollution Research, ISSN 0944-1344, E-ISSN 1614-7499, Vol. 24, no 1, p. 997-1006Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The release of harmful metals from antifouling paints to water bodies is a well-known problem. In this study, we measured both the amount of biofouling growth on leisure boats during one season as well as the concentration of metals accumulated by the biofouling matrix. Furthermore, the efficiency of antifouling paints and mechanical boat cleaning as well as the effect of hull colour on biofouling were evaluated. Unlike paint residues, biofouling waste has never been regarded as a source of metal contamination and has previously been neglected in the scientific literature. Our results revealed that the biofouling waste contained very high concentrations of metals, up to 28,000 mg copper/kg dw and 171,000 mg zinc/kg dw, which exceeds the guidance values for least sensitive land use in Sweden by factors of 140 and 340, respectively. This observation is important because the contaminated biofouling waste is commonly disposed of in boatyard soils at the end of each season, thus increasing the levels of metal pollution. Moreover, there was no significant difference in the amount of biofouling if the boats were coated with copper or zinc containing paints or no paint at all, indicating that biocide paints might not be necessary in low-salinity areas such as the Stockholm archipelago. For boats that were not painted at all during the season, those washed on boat washers (mechanically) had on average half of the amount of biofouling compared to boats that were not cleaned mechanically. The results of the study indicate the importance of proper management of biofouling waste as well as the use of more environmentally friendly removal methods for biofouling such as boat washers.

Keywords
Antifouling paint, Biofouling, Copper, Zinc, Boat, Field study
National Category
Environmental Sciences
Research subject
Applied Environmental Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-139819 (URN)10.1007/s11356-016-7883-7 (DOI)000392105700093 ()
Available from: 2017-02-15 Created: 2017-02-15 Last updated: 2022-03-23Bibliographically approved
Eklund, B. (2017). Review of the use of Ceramium tenuicorne growth inhibition test for testing toxicity of substances, effluents, products sediment and soil. Paper presented at 10th Baltic Sea Science Congress (BSSC) on Science and Innovation for Future of the Baltic and the European Regional Seas, Riga, Latvia, June 15-19, 2015. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 195, 88-97
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Review of the use of Ceramium tenuicorne growth inhibition test for testing toxicity of substances, effluents, products sediment and soil
2017 (English)In: Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, ISSN 0272-7714, E-ISSN 1096-0015, Vol. 195, p. 88-97Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

A growth inhibition test has been developed based on two clones of the red macroalga Ceramium tenuicorne, one originating from 7 PSU and the other from 20 PSU. The species can be adapted to different salinities and the test can be carried out between 4 and 32 PSU. This test became an ISO standard in 2010 (ISO 107 10) for testing of chemicals and water effluents. In this study new and published data has been compiled on toxicity of single substances, waste waters from pulp mills, leachates from antifouling paints, harbour sediments and soil used for maintenance of leisure boats. The results show that the alga is sensitive to both metals and organic compounds and to biocides used in antifouling paints. By testing leachates from antifouling paints these could be ranked according to their toxicity. Similarly, the toxicity of waste waters from pulp mills was determined and the efficiency of secondary treatment evaluated. Further, the test method proved useful to test the toxicity in sediment samples. Sediments from small town harbours and ship lanes were shown to be harmful and compounds originating from antifouling paints were responsible for a large part of the inhibiting effect. The alga proved to be sensitive to contaminants leaking from boat yard soil. The growth inhibition test is a robust test that has high repeatability and reproducibility and easily can be applied on water, soil and sediment samples without being too costly. The species is found wort-wide in temperate waters, which makes the results relevant for large areas. In the Baltic Sea C tenuicorne is the most common red alga species and is thus particularly relevant for this area. The overall results show that contaminants from boat activities and the use of antifouling paints in particular pose a threat to the environment.

Keywords
Ceramium tenuicorne, Antifouling paints, Pulp mill effluents, Toxicity, Soil, Sediment
National Category
Biological Sciences Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-147104 (URN)10.1016/j.ecss.2016.10.009 (DOI)000408787800011 ()
Conference
10th Baltic Sea Science Congress (BSSC) on Science and Innovation for Future of the Baltic and the European Regional Seas, Riga, Latvia, June 15-19, 2015
Available from: 2017-10-11 Created: 2017-10-11 Last updated: 2025-01-31Bibliographically approved
Lagerström, M., Strand, J., Eklund, B. & Ytreberg, E. (2017). Total tin and organotin speciation in historic layers of antifouling paint on leisure boat hulls. Environmental Pollution, 220, 1333-1341
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Total tin and organotin speciation in historic layers of antifouling paint on leisure boat hulls
2017 (English)In: Environmental Pollution, ISSN 0269-7491, E-ISSN 1873-6424, Vol. 220, p. 1333-1341Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Despite their ban on small vessels in 1989 in the EU, organotin compounds (OTCs) are still being released into the environment due to their presence in historic paint layers on leisure boats. 23 paint samples scraped from recreational boats from three countries around the Baltic Sea were analyzed for total tin (Sn) and OTCs. Two antifouling paint products were also subjected to the same analyses. A new method for the detection of Sn in paint flake samples was developed and found to yield more accurate results compared to four different acid digestion methods. A new method was also developed for the extraction of OTCs from ground paint flakes. This endeavor revealed that existing methods for organotin analysis of sediment may not have full recoveries of OTCs if paint flakes are present in the sample. The hull paint samples had Sn concentrations ranging from 25 to 18,000 mg/kg paint and results showed that tributyltin (TBT) was detected in all samples with concentrations as high as 4.7 g (as Sn)/kg paint. TBT was however not always the major OTC. Triphenyltin (TPhT) was abundant in many samples, especially in those originating from Finland. Several other compounds such as monobutyltin (MBT), dibutyltin (DBT), tetrabutyltin (TeBT), monophenyltin (MPhT) and diphenyltin (DPhT) were also detected. These could be the result of degradation occurring on the hull or of impurities in the paint products as they were also identified in the two analyzed paint products. A linear correlation (r(2) = 0.934) was found between the total tin content and the sum of all detected OTCs. The detection of tin can therefore be used to indicate the presence of OTCs on leisure boats. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.

Keywords
Organotin compounds, Tributyltin, Triphenyltin, Antifouling paint, Paint particles
National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Research subject
Applied Environmental Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-139376 (URN)10.1016/j.envpol.2016.11.001 (DOI)000390732300061 ()27836476 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2017-02-07 Created: 2017-02-06 Last updated: 2025-02-07Bibliographically approved
Lagerström, M., Norling, M. & Eklund, B. (2016). Metal contamination at recreational boatyards linked to the use of antifouling paints-investigation of soil and sediment with a field portable XRF. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 23(10), 10146-10157
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Metal contamination at recreational boatyards linked to the use of antifouling paints-investigation of soil and sediment with a field portable XRF
2016 (English)In: Environmental Science and Pollution Research, ISSN 0944-1344, E-ISSN 1614-7499, Vol. 23, no 10, p. 10146-10157Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The application of a field portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (FPXRF) to measure Cu, Zn, and Pb in soil and sediments at recreational boatyards by Lake Malaren in Sweden was investigated. Confirmatory chemical analysis on freeze-dried samples shows that, ex situ, the FPXRF produces definitive level data for Cu and Zn and quantitative screening data for Pb, according to USEPA criteria for data quality. Good agreement was also found between the ex situ measurements and the in situ screening. At each of the two studied boatyards, >40 in situ soil measurements were carried out. Statistical differences in soil concentration based on land use were consequently found: the areas used for boat storage and maintenance were significantly higher in Cu and Zn than the areas used for car parking and transportation. The metal pollution in the boat storage areas is therefore shown to be directly linked to hull maintenance activities during which metal-containing antifouling paint particles are shed, end up on the ground, and consequently pollute the soil. In the boat storage areas, the Cu and Zn concentrations often exceeded the national guideline values for soil. In this study, they were also shown to increase with increasing age of the boatyard operation. Pb soil concentrations were only elevated at a few measurement points, reflecting the phasing out of Pb compounds from antifouling products over the past 2 decades. In the surface sediments, concentrations of Cu and Zn were 2-3 times higher compared to deeper levels. No decrease in metal concentration with time was found in the sediments, indicating that boat owners are not complying with the ban of biocide-containing paints in freshwater introduced over 20 years ago.

Keywords
Antifouling paint, Boatyard, Soil, Sediment, XRF, Cu, Zn, Pb
National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Research subject
Applied Environmental Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-131544 (URN)10.1007/s11356-016-6241-0 (DOI)000376421400085 ()26873824 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2016-06-30 Created: 2016-06-21 Last updated: 2025-02-06Bibliographically approved
Eklund, B., Hansson, T., Bengtsson, H. & Eriksson Wiklund, A.-K. (2016). Pollutant Concentrations and Toxic Effects on the Red Alga Ceramium tenuicorne of Sediments from Natural Harbors and Small Boat Harbors on the West Coast of Sweden. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70(3), 583-594
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Pollutant Concentrations and Toxic Effects on the Red Alga Ceramium tenuicorne of Sediments from Natural Harbors and Small Boat Harbors on the West Coast of Sweden
2016 (English)In: Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, ISSN 0090-4341, E-ISSN 1432-0703, Vol. 70, no 3, p. 583-594Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This investigation set out to analyze the toxicity of surface sediments in a number of natural harbors and small boat harbors on the west coast of Sweden. This was done with the growth inhibition method with Ceramium tenuicorne. Also, concentrations of copper (Cu), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), irgarol, organotin compounds, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the sediments were analyzed. The small boat harbors were heavily polluted by Cu, Zn, butyltins, and PAHs, and to a lesser extent by Pb. The Cu, Pb, Zn, and butyltins probably originated from their past and/or present use in antifouling paints, whereas the PAHs probably had multiple sources, including boat motor exhausts. The measured toxicity of the sediment was generally related to their Cu, Zn, and butyltin content, although other toxic substances than those analyzed here probably contributed to the toxicity in some of the harbors. The natural harbor sediments contained less pollutants and were less toxic than the small boat harbor sediments. Nevertheless, our data indicate that the boating pressure today may be high enough to produce toxic effects even in natural harbors in pristine areas. The strongest relationship between toxicity and the major pollutants was obtained when the sediment toxicity was expressed as gram wet weight per liter compared with gram dry weight per liter and gram total organic carbon per liter. Hence, for pollutants that can be elutriated with natural sea water, sediment toxicity expressed as gram wet weight per liter appears preferable.

National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences Pharmacology and Toxicology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-129216 (URN)10.1007/s00244-016-0262-z (DOI)000372062000012 ()
Available from: 2016-05-27 Created: 2016-04-17 Last updated: 2025-01-31Bibliographically approved
Ytreberg, E., Bighiu, M. A., Lundgren, L. & Eklund, B. (2016). XRF measurements of tin, copper and zinc in antifouling paints coated on leisure boats. Environmental Pollution, 213, 594-599
Open this publication in new window or tab >>XRF measurements of tin, copper and zinc in antifouling paints coated on leisure boats
2016 (English)In: Environmental Pollution, ISSN 0269-7491, E-ISSN 1873-6424, Vol. 213, p. 594-599Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Tributyltin (TBT) and other organotin compounds have been restricted for use on leisure boats since 1989 in the EU. Nonetheless, release of TBT is observed from leisure boats during hull maintenance work, such as pressure hosing. In this work, we used a handheld X-ray Fluorescence analyser (XRF) calibrated for antifouling paint matrixes to measure tin, copper and zinc in antifouling paints coated on leisure boats in Sweden. Our results show that over 10% of the leisure boats (n = 686) contain >400 mu g/cm(2) of tin in their antifouling coatings. For comparison, one layer (40 mu m dry film) of a TBT-paint equals approximate to 800 mu g Sn/cm(2). To our knowledge, tin has never been used in other forms than organotin (OT) in antifouling paints. Thus, even though the XRF analysis does not provide any information on the speciation of tin, the high concentrations indicate that these leisure boats still have OT coatings present on their hull. On several leisure boats we performed additional XRF measurements by progressively scraping off the top coatings and analysing each underlying layer. The XRF data show that when tin is detected, it is most likely present in coatings close to the hull with several layers of other coatings on top. Thus, leaching of OT compounds from the hull into the water is presumed to be negligible. The risk for environmental impacts arises during maintenance work such as scraping, blasting and high pressure hosing activities. The data also show that many boat owners apply excessive paint layers when following paint manufacturers recommendations. Moreover, high loads of copper were detected even on boats sailing in freshwater, despite the more than 20 year old ban, which poses an environmental risk that has not been addressed until now.

Keywords
Antifouling paints, XRF, Metals, TBT, Copper, Zinc
National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences
Research subject
Applied Environmental Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-132501 (URN)10.1016/j.envpol.2016.03.029 (DOI)000377921800062 ()27016611 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2016-08-16 Created: 2016-08-15 Last updated: 2025-02-06Bibliographically approved
Dahlgren, E., Enhus, C., Lindqvist, D., Eklund, B. & Asplund, L. (2015). Induced production of brominated aromatic compounds in the alga Ceramium tenuicorne. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(22), 18107-18114
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Induced production of brominated aromatic compounds in the alga Ceramium tenuicorne
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2015 (English)In: Environmental Science and Pollution Research, ISSN 0944-1344, E-ISSN 1614-7499, Vol. 22, no 22, p. 18107-18114Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In the Baltic Sea, high concentrations of toxic brominated aromatic compounds have been detected in all compartments of the marine food web. A growing body of evidence points towards filamentous algae as a natural producer of these chemicals. However, little is known about the effects of environmental factors and life history on algal production of brominated compounds. In this study, several congeners of methoxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (MeO-PBDEs), hydroxylated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (OH-PBDEs) and brominated phenols (BPs) were identified in a naturally growing filamentous red algal species (Ceramium tenuicorne) in the Baltic Sea. The identified substances displayed large seasonal variations in the alga with a concentration peak in July. Production of MeO-/OH-PBDEs and BPs by C. tenuicorne was also established in isolated clonal material grown in a controlled laboratory setting. Based on three replicates, herbivory, as well as elevated levels of light and salinity in the culture medium, significantly increased the production of 2,4,6-tribromophenol (2,4,6-TBP). Investigation of differences in production between the isomorphic female, male and diploid clonal life stages of the alga grown in the laboratory revealed a significantly higher production of 2,4,6-TBP in the brackish water female gametophytes, compared to the corresponding marine gametophytes. Even higher concentrations of 2,4,6-TBP were produced by marine male gametophytes and sporophytes.

Keywords
Secondary metabolites, Natural production, Chemical pollutant, Bromophenols, Seasonal variations, Stress-induced production
National Category
Earth and Related Environmental Sciences Chemical Sciences
Research subject
Environmental Chemistry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-124787 (URN)10.1007/s11356-015-4907-7 (DOI)000365423100078 ()26178826 (PubMedID)
Available from: 2016-01-05 Created: 2016-01-04 Last updated: 2025-01-31Bibliographically approved
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