Alignment effects caused by a heat flow in the cholesteric liquid crystal phase of three coarse grained molecular model systems based on the Gay–Berne potential have been studied by molecular dynamics simulation. In order to keep the systems homogeneous, the Evans heat flow algorithm, where a fictitious mechanical heat field rather than a temperature gradient drives the heat flow, was used. It was found that the cholesteric axis orients in such a way that the heat flow and thereby the irreversible energy dissipation rate are minimized. This is in accordance with a theorem stating that the irreversible energy dissipation rate is minimal in the linear regime of a nonequilibrium steady state. In two of the studied systems this means that the cholesteric axis orients parallel to the heat field and the heat flow. Then the heat field induces a torque that rotates the director around the cholesteric axes which is the basis of the Lehmann effect. However, in one of the systems, the cholesteric axis orients perpendicularly to the heat field and a torque is exerted that rotates the cholesteric axis around the heat field. This is a transport phenomenon that has not been studied before.

Diffusion-driven rotation in cholesteric liquid crystals has been studied using molecular dynamics simulation. Then a chemical potential gradient parallel to the cholesteric axis induces a torque that rotates the director at a constant rate around this axis, besides driving a mass current. An equimolar mixture of Gay–Berne ellipsoids and Lennard-Jones spheres was used as the molecular model. In order to keep the system homogeneous, the color conductivity algorithm was used to apply a color field instead of a chemical potential gradient to drive a mass current. Then the particles are given a color charge that interacts with a color field in the same way as with an electric field, but these charges do not interact with each other. This algorithm is often used to calculate the mutual diffusion coefficient. In the above liquid crystal model, it was found that the color field induces a torque that rotates the director at a constant rate around the cholesteric axis in addition to driving a mass current. The phenomenon was quantified by calculating the cross-coupling coefficient between the color field and the director angular velocity. The results were cross-checked by using a director rotation algorithm to exert a torque to rotate the director at a constant rate. Besides rotation of the director, this resulted in a mass current parallel to the cholesteric axis. The cross-coupling coefficient between the torque and the mass current was equal to the cross-coupling coefficient between the color field and the director rotation rate within a statistical uncertainty of 10 percent, thus fulfilling the Onsager reciprocity relations. As a further cross-check, these cross-coupling coupling coefficients, the color conductivity, and the twist viscosity were calculated by evaluating the corresponding Green–Kubo relations. Finally, it was noted that the orientation of the cholesteric axis parallel to the color field is the one that minimizes the irreversible energy dissipation rate. This is in accordance with a theorem stating that this quantity is minimal in the linear regime of a nonequilibrium steady state.

The purpose of this article is to review molecular dynamics simulation of transport processes of liquid crystal model systems carried out during the last 30 years. In those processes a thermodynamic force or an external dissipative field drives a thermodynamic flux. Well-known examples are shear-flow and elongational flow, where a velocity gradient gives rise to a shear stress, and heat conduction where a temperature gradient drives a heat flow. In these transport processes it has been found that the director of the liquid crystal orients at a constant angle relative to the external dissipative field: In shear-flow the director orients at a constant angle relative to the streamlines, in elongational flow the director is either parallel or perpendicular to the elongation direction and during heat conduction the director is either parallel or perpendicular to the temperature gradient. The alignment angle has been found to be the one that minimizes the irreversible energy dissipation rate. This is in accordance with a recently proven theorem stating that this quantity is minimal in the linear regime of a non-equilibrium steady state. The most commonly used model system is based on the Gay-Berne fluid which can be regarded as a Lennard-Jones fluid generalized to elliptical molecular cores.

We have studied the behaviour of a biaxial smectic A liquid crystal based on the soft ellipsoid string-fluid in shear flow by molecular dynamics simulation using the SLLOD equation of motion. This is facilitated by the fact that the biaxial symmetry allows linear relations between the pressure and the velocity gradient. This means that linear irreversible thermodynamics can be applied independently of the simulations to obtain the torques determining the orientations of the system and that the predictions of this theory can be cross-checked by the simulations. It turns out that there is a torque turning the smectic layers to the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane if the simulation is started in another orientation. In the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane where the director formed by the long axes of the molecules, n_w, is perpendicular to the vorticity plane there is another torque keeping the director formed by the normals of the broadsides of the molecules, n_u, parallel to this plane at a constant alignment angle, ψ relative to the streamlines independently of the strain rate. Moreover, this alignment angle seems to be the one where the irreversible energy dissipation rate, ẇ, is minimal. This is in agreement with a recently proven theorem according to which ẇ is minimal in the linear regime of a nonequilibrium steady state. Finally, we studied the orientation of n_u when the smectic layers are parallel to the shear plane. In a simulation this orientation is stabilised by the periodic boundary conditions. Then we found that there was a nonlinear torque turning n_u to the orientation perpendicular to the streamlines thus minimising the value of ẇ even though this value is larger than the value of ẇ in the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane. This means that ẇ is minimized given the external boundary conditions.

Ionic liquids (ILs) are a special category of molten salts solely composed of ions with varied molecular symmetry and charge delocalization. The versatility in combining varied cation-anion moieties and in functionalizing ions with different atoms and molecular groups contributes to their peculiar interactions ranging from weak isotropic associations to strong, specific, and anisotropic forces. A delicate interplay among intra- and intermolecular interactions facilitates the formation of heterogeneous microstructures and liquid morphologies, which further contributes to their striking dynamical properties. Microstructural and dynamical heterogeneities of Its lead to their multifaceted properties described by an inherent designer feature, which makes ILs important candidates for novel solvents, electrolytes, and functional materials in academia and industrial applications. Due to a massive number of combinations of ion pairs with ion species having distinct molecular structures and IL mixtures containing varied molecular solvents, a comprehensive understanding of their hierarchical structural and dynamical quantities is of great significance for a rational selection of ILs with appropriate properties and thereafter advancing their macroscopic functionalities in applications. In this review, we comprehensively trace recent advances in understanding delicate interplay of strong and weak interactions that underpin their complex phase behaviors with a particular emphasis on understanding heterogeneous microstructures and dynamics of ILs in bulk liquids, in mixtures with cosolvents, and in interfacial regions.

We have studied the shear flow of the smectic A phase of three coarse grained liquid crystal model systems, namely two versions of the Gay-Berne fluid and the soft sphere string-fluid. At low shear rates, the orientation where the smectic layers are parallel to the shear plane and the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane are both stable in all the systems. In one of the Gay-Berne fluids, there is a transition from the orientation parallel to the shear plane to the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane. At higher shear rates, a nonequilibrium nematic phase is obtained in all the systems in the same way as in linear alkanes under shear. If the initial configuration is an equilibrium smectic A phase or a nematic phase with the molecules parallel to the streamlines, the orientation parallel to the shear plane is attained at low shear rates in the Gay-Berne fluids. In order to analyze the stability of the different orientations, the torque acting on the liquid crystal is calculated. It consists of an elastic torque caused by deformations due to the shape of the simulation cell and the periodic boundary conditions and a shear-induced torque. The elastic torque stabilizes both the orientation parallel to the shear plane and the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane because the liquid crystal is deformed if it is turned away from these orientations. The shear-induced torque, on the other hand, always turns the liquid crystal to the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane where the viscosity and the irreversible energy dissipation rate are minimal. Since the latter torque is proportional to the square of the shear rate, rather high shear rates are required for it to overwhelm the elastic torque. However, the elastic torque decreases with the system size so that it is likely that the shear-induced torque will dominate in large systems and that the orientation parallel to the vorticity plane will be attained at low or even zero shear rate.

We have studied the rheological behavior of the ionic liquid trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium bis(mandelato)borate, [P-66614][BMB], and compared it with that of another ionic liquid, namely trihexyl(tetradecyl)phosphonium chloride, [P-66614][Cl]. The non-halogenated [P-66614][BMB] has been selected as it is known to provide enhanced lubrication performance and is, consequently, of technological importance. The ionic liquid [P-66614][Cl], despite its relatively simple anion, exhibits viscosities very similar to those of [P-66614][BMB], making it an excellent reference fluid for the modeling study. The viscosities of the ionic liquids have been obtained by equilibrium atomistic simulations using the Green-Kubo relation, and by performing nonequilibrium shear flow simulations. The influence of the simulation system size and a reduction of the atomic charges on the viscosities of the ionic liquids are systematically studied. The atomic charges are reduced to mimic the temperature dependent charge transfer and polarization effects. It has been found that scaling the point charges with factors between 0.60 and 0.80 from full ion charges can provide reliable viscosities of [P-66614][BMB], consistent with the experimentally measured viscosities within the studied temperature interval from 373 to 463 K. The viscosities of [P-66614][Cl] have been obtained with scaling factors between 0.80 and 1.0 reflecting the lower polarizability and charge transfer effects of the chloride anion.

Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to study microscopic the interfacial ionic structures, molecular arrangements, and orientational preferences of trihexyltetradecylphosphonium-bis(mandelato)borate ([P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14][BM]) ionic liquid confined between neutral and charged gold electrodes. It was found that both [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14] cations and [BMB] anions are coabsorbed onto neutral electrodes at different temperatures. The hexyl and tetradecyl chains in [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14] cations lie preferentially flat on neutral electrodes. The oxalato and phenyl rings in [BMB] anions are characterized by alternative parallel perpendicular orientations in the mixed innermost ionic layer adjacent to neutral electrodes. An increase in temperature has a marginal effect on the interfacial ionic structures and molecular orientations of [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14] [BMB] ionic species in a confined environment. Electrifying gold electrodes leads to peculiar changes in the interfacial ionic structures and molecular orientational arrangements of [p(6,6,414)] cations and [BMB] anions in negatively and positively charged gold electrodes, respectively. As surface charge density increases (but lower than 20 mu C/cm(2)), the layer thickness of the mixed innermost interfacial layer gradually increases due to a consecutive accumulation of [P6,6,614] cations and [BMB] anions at negatively and positively charged electrodes, respectively, before the formation of distinct cationic and anionic innermost layers. Meanwhile, the molecular orientations of two oxalato rings in the same [BMB] anions change gradually from a parallel perpendicular feature to being partially characterized by a tilted arrangement at an angle of 45 from the electrodes and finally to a dominant parallel coordination pattern along positively charged electrodes. Distinctive interfacial distribution patterns are also observed accordingly for phenyl rings that are directly connected to neighboring oxalato rings in [BMB] anions.

Atomistic simulations have been performed to investigate the effect of aliphatic chain length in tetraalkylphosphonium cations on liquid morphologies, microscopic ionic structures, and dynamical quantities of tetraalkylphosphonium chloride ionic liquids. The liquid morphologies are characterized by sponge-like interpenetrating polar and apolar networks in ionic liquids consisting of tetraalkylphosphonium cations with short aliphatic chains. The lengthening aliphatic chains in tetraalkylphosphonium cations lead to polar domains consisting of chloride anions and central polar groups in cations being partially or totally segregated in ionic liquid matrices due to a progressive expansion of apolar domains in between. Prominent polarity alternation peaks and adjacency correlation peaks are observed at low and high q range in total X-ray scattering structural functions, respectively, and their peak positions gradually shift to lower q values with lengthening aliphatic chains in tetraalkylphosphonium cations. The charge alternation peaks registered in the intermediate q range exhibit complicated tendencies due to a cancellation of peaks and anti-peaks in partial structural functions for ionic subcomponents. The particular microstructures and liquid morphologies in tetraalkylphosphonium chloride ionic liquids intrinsically contribute to distinct dynamics characterized by mean square displacements, van Hove correlation functions, and non-Gaussian parameters for ionic species in the heterogeneous ionic environment. Most tetraalkylphosphonium cations have higher translational mobilities than their partner anions due to strong coordination of chloride anions with central polar groups in tetraalkylphosphonium cations through strong Coulombic and hydrogen bonding interactions. The increase of aliphatic chain length in tetraalkylphosphonium cations leads to a concomitant shift of van Hove correlation functions and non-Gaussian parameters to larger radial distances and longer time scales, respectively, indicating the enhanced translational dynamical heterogeneities of tetraalkylphosphonium cations and the corresponding chloride anions.

Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations have been performed to investigate volumetric quantities and dynamic properties of binary trihexyltetradecylphosphonium bis(oxalato)-borate ([P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14][BOB]) ionic liquid (IL)/water mixtures with different water concentrations. The predicted liquid densities for typical [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14][BOB] IL/water mixtures are consistent with available experimental data with a relative discrepancy of less than 3%. The liquid densities and excess molar volumes of all studied [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14][BOB] IL/water mixtures are characterized by concave and convex features, respectively, within full water concentration range. The dynamic properties of [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14] cations, [BOB] anions, and water molecules are particularly analyzed through calculation of velocity autocorrelation functions, diffusion coefficients, and reorientational autocorrelation functions and correlation times. The translational and reorientational mobilities of three species become faster upon increasing water concentration in [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14][BOB] IL/water mixtures and present complex dynamical characteristics arising from three distinct microscopic diffusion features within the full water concentration range. The obtained striking volumetric quantities and particular dynamic properties are well correlated to microscopic liquid structural organization and distinct local ionic environment of all studied [P-6,P-6,P-6,P-14][BOB] IL/water mixtures.