The continuous underrepresentation of women and of various minorities in elected political assemblies challenges classic democratic theory, which focuses on procedures, on the how, while neglecting the who of representation, be it in the ancient city-state of Athens or in modern deliberative governance structures. Political representation is embedded in the power structure of the political system. In most political systems the political parties are the gatekeepers to elected positions. When the voters enter the polling station, the nomination and rank order of candidates for election have already been decided on by the political parties. Historically, representation predates democracy, as in the representation of noblemen, priests, and the bourgeoisie in the old estates. The present discussion of equal representation of all citizens in relation to their share of the population is linked to modern democracy. Yet, increasingly, even senior non-democratic countries select their political assemblies through direct public elections, which has made the question of who the representatives are a global issue. This entry distinguishes between descriptive, substantive, and symbolic representation.