The article uses phenomenography to explore how fifteen upper secondary school students perceive a historical primary source in an interpretative process, and the difficulties the students encounter when examining the source. Empirical data was collected through a series of group interviews where students were asked to respond to a historical letter. Three research questions are addressed: Firstly, how do students experience, or perceive, the historical primary source? Secondly, what is critical for the students to discern when they interpret the historical source? Thirdly, what does knowing how to interpret historical primary sources actually mean? The phenomenographic analysis of the interview material resulted in four qualitatively different categories of experiences of the historical source that the students examined. The first category constitutes a temporal dimension of experiences, the second a human dimension, the third a contextual dimension and the fourth category can be seen as an epistemological dimension. The main results, however, are three critical aspects that emerge between the four categories of experiences. The analysis shows, firstly, that it is critical to discern how temporal perspectives affect the way we interpret historical sources. Secondly, that it is critical for the students to discern the historical perspective on the source. Secondly, that it is critical for them to discern the perspective of historical actors. And thirdly, that it is critical for them to discern the subtext of the source in relation to the historical context. Based on the three critical aspects and their meanings, the meaning of knowing how to interpret historical primary sources is discussed, as well as the possible consequences for the teaching of history.

The article uses a form of content focused conversation analysis to explore processes of learning and attributing meaning when upper secondary students work with two primary source assignments in history. Empirical data was collected through audio recordings of students’ collaborative work on the assignments, which consisted in analysing two primary sources in small groups. The article addresses one primary research question: what is characteristic for the processes of learning and meaning-making when students work with two source analysis assignments? As a first step, the students’ learning processes, understood as a change in participation in the learning activity, are described. As a second step, the article describes how the students’ construct meaning when working with the primary sources. The main results are descriptions of the students’ learning, and meaning-making, processes. Based on the analysis of the students’ conversations it is suggested that the temporal aspect is discerned in a contrastive process between the present and the past in terms of values, ideas and societal conditions. In relation to the human aspect the students experienced a difficult balancing act in contrasting their own perspective with the historical actor’s perspective. However, a successful strategy was to take on the role of hypothetical historical agents. Finally, in relation to the contextual aspect once the students were involved in a process of inquiry and reasoning they managed to discern subtexts of the sources in relation to the historical context. It is suggested that certain aspects of school culture might inhibit the students’ learning of primary source analysis, as they occasionally strive to find the "right answers" rather than engaging in interpretative work. One interesting finding was the vital role of the students’ life-world perspective in creating meaning while working with the primary sources, and it is suggested that this perspective should be regarded in educational design.

The article contributes with knowledge of primary school pupils’ learning of historical enquiry with an intercultural perspective on the Viking age and investigates what it means for pupils to learn to interpret archaeological artefacts. Research was conducted as a Learning study with 10 and 11-year-old pupils and lessons were performed as historical enquiry with archaeological artefacts. Three questions are posed: (1) how were the pupils’ historical consciousness activated by the archaeological artefacts, (2) how did the pupils experience the task of interpreting archaeological artefacts with an intercultural perspective, and (3) what are critical aspects for this learning? Three variation patterns that activated pupils’ historical consciousness are identified, including (a) material, (b) cultural and (c) normative contrasts. Four perception categories for historical interpretation of archaeological artefacts and three critical aspects are also identified. It is suggested that it is critical for the pupils to discern (i) historicity, (ii) historical representativeness and (iii) intercultural interaction in relation to artefacts and historical narratives. The study suggests that teachers could start from archaeological artefacts to activate pupils’ historical consciousness, rather than from textbook narratives and that pupils’ perceptions should be seen as a resource in enabling historical learning. Also, historical enquiry appears to be a reasonable approach to teaching intercultural perspectives on a historical content. These findings can be valuable for history educators and researchers who engage in teaching historical enquiry with an intercultural perspective from material culture.

The article aims to explore how learning historical interpretation of Viking age archaeological artefacts from an intercultural perspective could be facilitated through historical enquiry in primary school. Three design principles were formulated for the teaching: 1) enquiry based upon an authentic intercultural question, 2) enquiry with a focus on source interpretation, and 3) enquiry using material culture in the form of archaeological artefacts. Two questions were addressed: first, how did the teaching design and practice facilitate the intended learning, and second, what obstacles to learning were encountered as a result of the design? Research data was analysed qualitatively using content-focused conversation analysis and variation theory. The findings in relation to the first question indicated that the design principles helped teachers facilitate learning through historical enquiry from an intercultural perspective, and that archaeological artefacts can inspire investigations into history by activating pupils’ historical consciousness. The answer to the second question indicated that pupils had difficulties responding to historical enquiries with synthesised inferences based on historical evidence. A revision of the final phase of the enquiry suggests that focus is on discussing reasonable explanations in relation to artefacts, rather than synthesising historical inferences based on evidence. This study points to possibilities of teaching historical interpretation and intercultural perspectives through historical enquiry in primary school and suggests that archaeological artefacts can be used to initiate historical learning.