Fe and Ru pincer-type catalysts are used for the racemization of benzylic alcohols. Racemization with the Fe catalyst was achieved within 30 minutes under mild reaction conditions, with a catalyst loading as low as 2 mol %. This reaction constitutes the first example of an iron-catalyzed racemization of an alcohol. The efficiency for racemization of the Fe catalyst and its Ru analogue was evaluated for a wide range of sec-benzylic alcohols. The commercially available Ru complex proved to be highly robust and even tolerated the presence of water in the reaction mixture.
Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions of heteroaromatics catalyzed by palladium supported in the cavities of amino-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam are presented. The nanopalladium catalyst effectively couples not only heteroaryl halides with boronic acids but also heteroaryl halides with boronate esters, potassium trifluoroborates, MIDA boronates, and triolborates, producing a wide range of heterobiaryls in good to excellent yields. Furthermore, the heterogeneous palladium nanocatalyst can easily be removed from the reaction mixture by filtration and recycled several times with minimal loss in activity. This catalyst provides an alternative, environmentally friendly, low-leaching process for the preparation of heterobiaryls.
The concept of combining heterogeneous transition metal and amine catalysis for enantioselective cascade reactions has not yet been realized. This is of great advantage since it would allow for the recycling of expensive and non-environmentally friendly transition metals. We disclose that the use of a heterogeneous Pd-catalyst in combination with a simple chiral amine co-catalyst allows for highly enantioselective cascade transformations. The preparative power of this process has been demonstrated in the context of asymmetric cascade Michael/carbocyclization transformations that delivers cyclopentenes bearing an all carbon quaternary stereocenters in high yields with up to 30: 1 dr and 99% ee. Moreover, a variety of highly enantioselective cascade hetero-Michael/carbocyclizations were developed for the one-pot synthesis of valuable dihydrofurans and pyrrolidines (up to 98% ee) by using bench-stable heterogeneous Pd and chiral amines as co-catalysts.
A modular design for a novel heterogeneous synergistic catalytic system, which simultaneously activates the electrophile and nucleophile by the combined activation modes of a separate metal and non-metal catalyst, for asymmetric cascade transformations on a solid surface is disclosed. This modular catalysis strategy generates carbocycles (up to 97.5: 2.5 er) as well as spirocyclic oxindoles (97.5: 2.5 to > 99: 0.5 er), containing all-carbon quaternary centers, in a highly enantioselective fashion via a one-pot dynamic relay process.
Herein is described a versatile and broad synergistic strategy for expansion of chemical space and the synthesis of valuable molecules (e.g. carbocycles and heterocycles), with up to three quaternary stereocenters, in a highly enantioselective fashion from simple alcohols (31examples, 95:5 to >99.5:0.5 e.r.) using integrated heterogeneous metal/chiral amine multiple relay catalysis and air/O-2 as the terminal oxidant. A novel highly 1,4-selective heterogeneous metal/amine co-catalyzed hydrogenation of enals was also added to the relay catalysis sequences.
Surpassing nature: A hybrid catalyst in which Candida antarctica lipase B and a nanopalladium species are co-immobilized into the compartments of mesoporous silica is presented. The metal nanoparticles and the enzyme are in close proximity to one another in the cavities of the support. The catalyst mimics a metalloenzyme and was used for dynamic kinetic resolution of a primary amine in high yield and excellent enantioselectivity.
A versatile approach for the production of dispersed thiol-stabilized gold nanoparticles in the pores of siliceous mesocellular foam (MCF) is described. The reported method is based on an electrochemical oxidation of a gold surface generating oxidative Au-III species, which give rise to a surface-confined redox reaction yielding MCF-supported Au-I thiolates. By reducing the corresponding Au-I-S-MCF species with sodium borohydride, thiol-stabilized gold nanoparticles in the size range of 1-8 nm were obtained as determined by transmission electron microscopy. Elemental analysis indicated an Au loading of 3% (w/w) on the MCF. The surface-confined Au nanoparticles were used to catalyze the cycloisomerization of alkynoic acids to the corresponding -alkylidene lactones in high efficiency and complete 5-exo-dig selectivity under mild reaction conditions.
A catalyst consisting of palladium nanoparticles supported on amino-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam (Pd-AmP-MCF) was used in chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR) to convert primary amines to amides in high yields and excellent ee's. The efficiency of the nanocatalyst at temperatures below 70 degrees C enables reaction conditions that are more suitable for enzymes. In the present study, this is exemplified by subjecting 1-phenylethylamine (1a) and analogous benzylic amines to DKR reactions using two commercially available lipases, Novozyme-435 (Candida antartica Lipase B) and Amano Lipase PS-C1 (lipase from Burkholderia cepacia) as biocatalysts. The latter enzyme has not previously been used in the DKR of amines because of its low stability at temperatures over 60 degrees C. The viability of the heterogeneous Pd-AmP-MCF was further demonstrated in a recycling study, which shows that the catalyst can be reused up to five times.
Artificial photosynthesis is an attractive strategy for converting solar energy into fuel. In this context, development of catalysts for oxidation of water to molecular oxygen remains a critical bottleneck. Herein, we describe the preparation of a well-defined nanostructured RuO2 catalyst, which is able to carry out the oxidation of water both chemically and photochemically. The developed heterogeneous RuO2 nanocatalyst was found to be highly active, exceeding the performance of most known heterogeneous water oxidation catalysts when driven by chemical or photogenerated oxidants.
Herein, a design of a biohybrid catalyst is described, consisting of Pd nanoparticles and a cross-linked network of aggregated lipase B enzyme of Candida antarctica (CalB CLEA) functioning as an active support for the Pd nanoparticles. Both entities of the hybrid catalyst showed good catalytic activity. The applicability was demonstrated in a one-pot reaction, where the Pd-catalyzed cycloisomerization of 4-pentynoic acid afforded a lactone that serves as an acyl donor in a subsequent selective enzymatic kinetic resolution of a set of sec-alcohols. The catalyst proved to be robust and could be recycled five times without a significant loss of activity.
Herein, we report on the facile synthesis of a heterogeneous copper nanocatalyst and its combination with 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) for the aerobic oxidation of alcohols to their corresponding carbonyl compounds. This low cost copper nanocatalyst was found to exhibit excellent recyclability, making it a highly attractive catalytic system from an economical and environmental point of view. Extensive characterization of the catalyst by a number of techniques revealed that it was comprised of well-dispersed Cu(I/II) nanoparticles with an average size of around 6nm.
Human society faces a fundamental challenge as energy consumption is projected to increase due to population and economic growth as fossil fuel resources decrease. Therefore the transition to alternative and sustainable energy sources is of the Utmost importance. The conversion of solar energy into chemical energy, by splitting H2O to generate molecular O-2 and H-2, could contribute to solving the global energy problem. Developing such a system will require the combination of several complicated processes, such as light-harvesting, charge separation, electron transfer, H2O oxidation, and reduction of the generated protons. The primary processes of charge separation and catalysis, which occur in the natural photosynthetic machinery, provide us with an excellent blueprint for the design of such systems. This Account describes our efforts to construct supramolecular assemblies capable of carrying out photoinduced electron transfer and to develop artificial water oxidation catalysts (WOCs). Early work in our group focused on linking a ruthenium chromophore to a manganese-based oxidation catalyst. When we incorporated a tyrosine unit into these supramolecular assemblies, we could observe fast intramolecular electron transfer from the manganese centers, via the tyrosine moiety, to the photooxidized ruthenium center, which clearly resembles the processes occurring in the natural system. Although we demonstrated multi-electron transfer in our artificial systems, the bottleneck proved to be the stability of the WOCs. Researchers have developed a number of WOCs, but the majority can only catalyze H2O oxidation in the presence of strong oxidants such as Ce-IV, which is difficult to generate photochemically. By contrast, illumination of ruthenium(II) photosensitizers in the presence of a sacrificial acceptor generates [Ru(bpy)(3)](3+)-type oxidants. Their oxidation potentials are significantly lower than that of Ce-IV, but our group recently showed that incorporating negatively charged groups into the ligand backbone could decrease the oxidation potential of the catalysts and, at the same time, decrease the potential for H2O oxidation. This permitted us to develop both ruthenium- and manganese-based WOCs that can operate under neutral conditions, driven by the mild oxidant [Ru(bpy)(3)](3+). Many hurdles to the development of viable systems for the production of solar fuels remain. However, the combination of important features from the natural photosynthetic machinery and novel artificial components adds insights into the complicated catalytic processes that are involved in splitting H2O.
Herein, we describe the straightforward synthesis and thorough characterization of a magnetically-separable heterogeneous catalyst comprised of 1-3nm-sized Pd nanoparticles immobilized on a mesoporous silica-magnetite composite (Pd-0-AmP-SMC). Catalytic evaluations were conducted using Suzuki-Miyaura cross-couplings as the model reactions, for which this Pd nanocatalyst exhibited high performance in an environmentally-friendly solvent mixture. Additionally, this Pd nanocatalyst could be re-used up to five cycles without any observable loss of activity, and separation of the catalyst could be conveniently done by a magnet.
Electrochemical water splitting constitutes one of the most promising strategies for converting water into hydrogen-based fuels, and this technology is predicted to play a key role in the transition towards a carbon-neutral energy economy. To enable the design of cost-effective electrolysis cells based on this technology, new and more efficient anodes with augmented water splitting activity and stability will be required. Herein, we report an active molecular Ru-based catalyst for electrochemically-driven water oxidation (overpotential of ∼395 mV at pH 7 phosphate buffer) and two simple methods for preparing anodes by attaching this catalyst onto glassy carbon through multi-walled carbon nanotubes to improve stability as well as reactivity. The anodes modified with the molecular catalyst were characterized by a broad toolbox of microscopy and spectroscopy techniques, and interestingly no RuO2 formation was detected during electrocatalysis over 4 h. These results demonstrate that the herein presented strategy can be used to prepare anodes that rival the performance of state-of-the-art metal oxide anodes.
Chemoselective reduction of the C=C bond in a variety of α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds using supported palladium nanoparticles is reported. Three different heterogeneous catalysts were compared using 1 atm of H2: 1) nano-Pd on a metal–organic framework (MOF: Pd0-MIL-101-NH2(Cr)), 2) nano-Pd on a siliceous mesocellular foam (MCF: Pd0-AmP-MCF), and 3) commercially available palladium on carbon (Pd/C). Initial studies showed that the Pd@MOF and Pd@MCF nanocatalysts were superior in activity and selectivity compared to commercial Pd/C. Both Pd0-MIL-101-NH2(Cr) and Pd0-AmP-MCF were capable of delivering the desired products in very short reaction times (10–90 min) with low loadings of Pd (0.5–1 mol %). Additionally, the two catalytic systems exhibited high recyclability and very low levels of metal leaching.
Cycloisomerization of various gamma-acetylenic acids to their corresponding gamma-alkylidene lactones by the use of a heterogeneous Pd(II) catalyst supported on amino-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam is described. Substrates containing terminal as well as internal alkynes were cyclized in high to excellent yields within 2-24 h under mild reaction conditions. The protocol exhibited high regio- and stereoselectivity, favoring the exo-dig product with high Z selectivity. Moreover, the catalyst displayed excellent stability under the employed reaction conditions, as demonstrated by its good recyclability and low leaching.
Herein, we present a short and highly modular synthetic route that involves 8-aminoquinoline directed C–H arylation and transamidation chemistry, and which enables access to a wide range of elaborate benzofuran-2-carboxamides. For the directed C–H arylation reactions, Pd catalysis was used to install a wide range of aryl and heteroaryl substituents at the C3 position of the benzofuran scaffold in high efficiency. Directing group cleavage and further diversification of the C3-arylated benzofuran products were then achieved in a single synthetic operation through the utilization of a one-pot, two-step transamidation procedure, which proceeded via the intermediate N-acyl-Boc-carbamates. Given the high efficiency and modularity of this synthetic strategy, it constitutes a very attractive method for generating structurally diverse collections of benzofuran derivatives for small molecule screening campaigns.
Herein, we present an operationally simple protocol for the cycloisomerization of propargylic carbamates in which a heterogeneous catalyst consisting of Pd species immobilized on amino-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam (Pd-II-AmP-MCF) is used. This Pd nanocatalyst displayed high efficiency at low catalyst loading and reaction temperatures, which allowed for the efficient and mild synthesis of a wide range of 1,3-oxazolidin-2-one derivatives and related compounds. Moreover, it proved possible to re-use the Pd nanocatalyst for several reactions, although a gradual decrease in activity was observed in the subsequent cycles.
This work outlines a synthetic route that can be used to access chiral cyclobutane keto acids with two stereocenters in five steps from the inexpensive terpene myrtenal. Furthermore, the developed route includes an 8-aminoquinoline-directed C(sp2)–H arylation as one of its key steps, which allows a wide range of aryl and heteroaryl groups to be incorporated into the bicyclic myrtenal scaffold prior to the ozonolysis-based ring-opening step that furnishes the target cyclobutane keto acids. This synthetic route is expected to find many applications connected to the synthesis of natural product-like compounds and small molecule libraries.
This work demonstrates how a series of complex, chiral cyclobutane derivatives can be accessed in four steps from the terpene verbenone through the application of a directed C-H functionalization approach. The developed synthetic route involved an 8-aminoquinoline-directed C(sp(3))-H arylation as the key step, and this reaction could be carried out with a wide range of aryl and heteroaryl iodides to furnish a variety of cyclobutane products with three contiguous stereocenters. Moreover, it was shown that the 8-aminoquinoline auxiliary could be effectively removed from the cyclobutane derivatives using an ozonolysis-based cleavage method.
A highly dispersed nanopalladium catalyst supported on mesocellular foam (MCF), was successfully used in the heterogeneous catalysis of aminocarbonylation reactions. During the preliminary evaluation of this catalyst it was discovered that the supported palladium nanoparticles exhibited a “release and catch” effect, meaning that a minor amount of the heterogeneous palladium became soluble and catalyzed the reaction, after which it re-deposited onto the support.
The first part describes the synthesis of new analogues of Bäckvall’s catalyst with varying electronic properties and their application in the racemization of sec-alcohols. The racemization involves two key steps: (i) β-hydride elimination (dehydrogenation of the alcohol) and (ii) hydride re-addition to the intermediate ketone. The obtained results confirmed our previous theory that the electronic properties of the substrate determine which of these two steps that is rate-determining. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that a dramatic increase in racemization rate could be obtained by matching the electronic properties of catalyst and substrate.
The second part describes mechanistic studies done on Bäckvall’s catalyst, where the exchange of carbon monoxide was investigated. By monitoring the uptake of 13C-labeled CO by 13C NMR spectroscopy, we could observe that the CO-exchange was approximately 20 times faster in the catalytically active tBuO-species than in the chloride precatalyst. Furthermore, an inhibitory effect could be observed in the racemization reaction of (S)-1-phenylethanol upon addition of CO. These results provide strong experimental support for reversible CO dissociation as a key step in the racemization mechanism of sec-alcohols.
The third part describes the synthesis and characterization of highly dispersed palladium nanoparticles immobilized on amino-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam. The catalyst exhibited high activity in the aerobic oxidation of a wide range of primary and secondary alcohols, when using air as source of oxygen. Moreover, the catalyst exhibited excellent recyclability and negligible leaching, making it an environmentally friendly alternative for these transformations.
The first part of the thesis covers the development and utilization of electronically modified (pentaarylcyclopentadienyl)Ru-complexes in the racemization of secondary alcohols. This study revealed that the electronic properties of the substrate were the main factors dictating whether β-hydride elimination or hydride re-addition becomes the rate-determining step of the racemization process. With this knowledge in hand, it proved to be possible to design more efficient racemization protocols by matching the electronic properties of catalyst and substrate.
The second part describes mechanistic work that aimed at elucidating the role of CO dissociation in the mechanism of secondary alcohol racemization catalyzed by a (pentaarylcyclopentadienyl)Ru-complex. From CO exchange studies, we demonstrated that CO dissociation occurred in the catalytically active tert-BuO-species as well as in the chloride precatalyst. Furthermore, an inhibition study showed that an increase of the partial pressure of CO had a negative influence on the racemization rate. Together, these two observations provide strong support for CO dissociation as a key step in the racemization of secondary alcohols.
The third part concerns the improved synthesis and characterization of a heterogeneous catalyst consisting of Pd nanoparticles immobilized on aminopropyl-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam. The developed Pd nanocatalyst was found to be a highly efficient and recyclable catalyst for the aerobic oxidation of a wide range of primary and secondary alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes and ketones.
The fourth part deals with the successful application of the Pd nanocatalyst in chemically-induced H2O oxidation, when using either ceric ammonium nitrate or [Ru(bpy)3]3+ as the terminal oxidant. Remarkably, the Pd nanocatalyst proved to catalyze this reaction with high efficiency and the measured TOF was found to greatly exceed those of current state-of-the-art metal oxide catalysts.
The fifth and final part describes the co-immobilization of Pd nanoparticles and the enzyme Candida Antarctica Lipase B into the same cavities of mesocellular foam, to generate a “metalloenzyme-like” hybrid catalyst for the dynamic kinetic resolution of a primary amine. The close proximity of the two catalytic species led to an enhanced cooperativity between them and resulted in an overall more efficient tandem process.
Chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolution (DKR) constitutes a convenient and efficient method to access enantiomerically pure alcohol and amine derivatives. This Perspective highlights the work carried out within this field during the past two decades and pinpoints important avenues for future research. First, the Perspective will summarize the more developed area of alcohol DKR, by delineating the way from the earliest proof-of-concept protocols to the current state-of-the-art systems that allows for the highly efficient and selective preparation of a wide range of enantiomerically pure alcohol derivatives. Thereafter, the Perspective will focus on the more challenging DKR of amines, by presenting the currently available homogeneous and heterogeneous methods and their respective limitations. In these two parts, significant attention will be dedicated to the design of efficient racemization methods as an important means of developing milder DKR protocols. In the final part of the Perspective, a brief overview of the research that has been devoted toward improving enzymes as biocatalysts is presented.
This chapter will review the currently available strategies for interfacing transition metal nanoparticles with enzymes and other more complex biological systems, as well as the applications of such biometal hybrids in the areas of catalysis, energy production, environmental remediation, and medicine. In the first part of this chapter, the focus will be on the many nanometal-enzyme hybrids that have been developed for applications in organic synthesis. Within the field of organic chemistry, nanometal-enzyme hybrids are often used as bifunctional catalysts to mediate different multistep transformations, as for example the dynamic kinetic resolution of alcohols and amines. The second part of this chapter will offer an overview of nanometal-enzyme hybrids that are used as bioelectrodes in biofuel cells. This area of research has grown significantly during the past decades, much because of the many potential future applications of such devices for medical purposes. Here, nanometal-enzyme hybrid based biofuel cells hold particular promise for biosensing applications, as well as for replacing battery-based solutions in actuator devices such as mechanical valves and pacemakers. In the final part of this chapter, the different strategies to use bacteria to synthesize metal nanoparticles will be reviewed. As will be shown by the many examples in this part, biologically synthesized and supported transition metal nanoparticles constitute interesting catalytic systems that could for example be used for energy production, pollutant degradation, and small molecule synthesis.
By using a dimeric ruthenium complex in combination with tert-butyl hydrogen peroxide (TBHP) as stoichiometric oxidant, a mild and efficient protocol for the oxidation of secondary benzylic alcohols was obtained, thereby giving the corresponding ketones in high yields within 4 h. However, in the oxidation of aliphatic alcohols, the TBHP protocol suffered from low conversions owing to a competing Ru-catalyzed disproportionation of the oxidant. Gratifyingly, by switching to Oxone (2 KHSO5⋅KHSO4⋅K2SO4 triple salt) as stoichiometric oxidant, a more efficient and robust system was obtained that allowed for the oxidation of a wide range of aliphatic and benzylic secondary alcohols, giving the corresponding ketones in excellent yields. The mechanism for these reactions is believed to involve a high-valent RuV–oxo species. We provide support for such an intermediate by means of mechanistic studies.
Ultra-small mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have been synthesized at room temperature with particle sizes ranging from 28 to 45 nm. These MSNs have been employed as heterogeneous supports for palladium and gold nanocatalysts. The colloidal nature of the MSNs is highly useful for catalytic applications as it allows for better mass transfer properties and a more uniform distribution of the nanocatalysts in solution. The two nanocatalysts were evaluated in the cycloisomerization of alkynoic acids and demonstrated to produce the corresponding alkylidene lactones in good to excellent yields under mild conditions. In addition to their high activity, the catalysts exhibit low degree of metal leaching and straight-forward recycling, which highlight the practical utility of MSNs as supports for nanocatalysts. (C) 2014 Author(s). All article content, except where otherwise noted, is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License.
We present the utilization of a heterogeneous catalyst comprised of Pd nanoparticles supported on aminopropyl-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam (Pd-0-AmP-MCF) for the selective hydrogenation of aromatic, aliphatic, and heterocyclic nitro compounds to the corresponding amines. In general, the catalytic protocol exclusively affords the desired amine products in excellent yields within short reaction times with the reactions performed at room temperature under ambient pressure of H-2. Moreover, the reported Pd nanocatalyst displayed excellent structural integrity for this transformation as it could be recycled multiple times without any observable loss of activity or leaching of metal. In addition, the Pd nanocatalyst could be easily integrated into a continuous-flow device and used for the hydrogenation of 4-nitroanisole on a 2.5 g scale, where the product p-anisidine was obtained in 95% yield within 2 h with a Pd content of less than 1 ppm.
The synthesis of a new series of cyclopentadienylruthenium catalysts with varying electronic properties and their application in racemization of secondary alcohols are described. These racemizations involve two key steps: 1) β-hydride elimination (dehydrogenation) and 2) re-addition of the hydride to the intermediate ketone. The results obtained confirm our previous theory that the electronic properties of the substrate determine which of these two steps is rate determining. For an electron-deficient alcohol the rate-determining step is the β-hydride elimination (dehydrogenation), whereas for an electron-rich alcohol the re-addition of the hydride becomes the rate-determining step. By matching the electronic properties of the catalyst with the electronic properties of the alcohol, we have now shown that a dramatic increase in racemization rate can be obtained. For example, electron-deficient alcohol 15 racemized 30 times faster with electron-deficient catalyst 6 than with the unmodified standard catalyst 4. The application of these protocols will extend the scope of cyclopentadienylruthenium catalysts in racemization and dynamic kinetic resolution.
The applications of a heterogeneous Pd0-AmP-MCF nanoparticle catalyst in Suzuki cross-coupling reactions and transfer hydrogenations of alkenes are described. The catalyst was highly efficient for both transformations, resulting in 1)coupling of a wide range of aryl halides with various boronic acids in high yields and 2)chemoselective reduction of a variety of alkenes with the use of 1-methyl-1,4-cyclohexadiene as hydrogen donor. Moreover, the catalyst can be recycled several times without any significant decrease in activity or leaching of metal into solution, making the protocol economical and environmentally friendly. In the case of the Suzuki cross-coupling, a 15-fold increase in reaction rate was observed if the reaction was performed under microwave irradiation compared to conventional heating in an oil bath.
Herein a two-step strategy for achieving overall transamidation of 8-aminoquinoline amides has been explored. In this protocol, the 8-aminoquinoline amides were first treated with Boc(2)O and DMAP to form the corresponding N-acyl-Boc-carbamates, which were found to be sufficiently reactive to undergo subsequent aminolysis with different amines in the absence of any additional reagents or catalysts. To demonstrate the utility of this approach, it was applied on a number of 8-aminoquinoline amides from the recent C-H functionalization literature, enabling access to a range of elaborate amide derivatives in good to high yields
Herein, the preparation of a heterogeneous catalyst consisting of 1-2nm sized Pd nanoparticles supported on amino-functionalized mesoporous hollow silica nanospheres and its use for the semihydrogenation of mono- and disubstituted alkynes is reported. By utilizing this Pd nanocatalyst together with the green poisoning agent DMSO, high yields of the desired alkenes could be achieved, while suppressing the degree of over-reduction to alkanes. To our delight, the Pd nanocatalyst displayed remarkable chemoselectivity towards the alkyne moiety, allowing the transformation to be carried out in the presence of other reducible functionalities, such as halogens, carbonyl, and nitro groups.
Herein, a practical and mild method for the deoxygenation of a wide range of benzylic aldehydes and ketones is described, which utilizes heterogeneous Pd/C as the catalyst together with the green hydride source, polymethylhydrosiloxane. The developed catalytic protocol is scalable and robust, as exemplified by the deoxygenation of ethyl vanillin, which was performed on a 30 mmol scale in an open-to-air setup using only 0.085 mol% Pd/C catalyst to furnish the corresponding deoxygenated product in 93% yield within 3 hours at room temperature. Furthermore, the Pd/C catalyst was shown to be recyclable up to 6 times without any observable decrease in efficiency and it exhibited low metal leaching under the reaction conditions.
13CO exchange studies of racemization catalyst (η5-Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2Cl and (η5-Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2(Ot-Bu) by 13C NMR spectroscopy are reported. CO exchange for the active catalyst form, (η5-Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2(Ot-Bu) is approximately 20 times faster than that for the precatalyst (η5-Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2Cl. An inhibition on the rate of racemization of (S)-1-phenylethanol was observed on addition of CO. These results support the hypothesis that CO dissociation is a key step in the racemization of sec-alcohols by (η5-Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2Cl, as also predicted by DFT calculations.
A well-studied heterogeneous palladium(II) catalyst used for the cycloisomerization of acetylenic acids is known to be susceptible to deactivation through reduction. To gain a deeper understanding of this deactivation process and to enable the design of a reactivation strategy, in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used. With this technique, changes in the palladium oxidation state and coordination environment could be studied in close detail, which provided experimental evidence that the deactivation was primarily caused by triethylamine-promoted reduction of palladium(II) to metallic palladium nanoparticles. Furthermore, it was observed that the choice of the acetylenic acid substrate influenced the distribution between palladium(II) and palladium(0) species in the heterogeneous catalyst after the reaction. From the mechanistic insight gained through XAS, an improved catalytic protocol was developed that did not suffer from deactivation and allowed for more efficient recycling of the catalyst.
The cause and mechanism of deactivation of a well-studied heterogeneous palladium(II) catalyst in the intramolecular lactonization of acetylenic acids to γ-alkylidene lactones have been investigated. It was shown that the deactivation was driven by the formation of reduced palladium species following the addition of the base triethylamine. In this work, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used to identify the palladium species and follow their evolution over the course of the reaction. It was also found that the choice of substrates has significant influences on the Pd species under the same reaction conditions. With these insights into the deactivation mechanism derived from XAS, different strategies were tested and illustrated to regain or maintain the active state of the catalyst. This information was further used to develop a new protocol, which can effectively prevent the deactivation of the catalyst and prolong its usage.