Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is the ability of microbes to survive exposure to antimicrobial agents. Even though AMR is not a disease per se, it is claiming more lives (directly and indirectly) than malaria and HIV combined. While a lot of research has been done in this area, most studies do not account for the fact that in nature, bacterial populations are genetically diverse and live in multispecies communities where they interact with each other and the environment. Importantly, the spread and evolution of AMR can be influenced by such interactions. This thesis focuses on two processes that can promote AMR in the environment: horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in polymicrobial communities and co-selection of resistance-like phenotypes by exposure to other biocides. In paper I, bioreactors were established to grow and maintain a stable polymicrobial community over longer timescales, enabling studies of how a promiscuous plasmid (pKJK5) disseminates ARGs among microbial members in the community. The plasmid was assimilated by less abundant community members, while in contrast one of the most abundant members remained plasmid-free. The composition and dynamics of the polymicrobial community changed during and after antibiotic treatment depending on the absence/presence of the plasmid. The presence of the plasmid also seemed to prevent a bloom of a pathogenic member of this microbial community. In paper II, we went beyond the taxonomy of plasmid hosts to identify and describe genome-encoded plasmid transfer barriers from metagenomes and single cell genomes. There was a clear barrier for plasmid transfer related to the biochemical Gram classification. Comparing genomes of transconjugants to non-transconjugants, there were multiple enriched genomic differences in genes involved in cell envelopes and post-translational regulations while canonical plasmid transfer barriers such as presence of other incompatible plasmids or bacterial defense systems did not seem to be a major constraint for the spread of pKJK5. In paper III, we explored co-selection of zinc and antibiotic resistance through a series of short term experimental evolution incubations with a Gram positive environmental isolate. There was an increased antibiotic tolerance in isolates previously grown in high concentrations of zinc. While no plasmid-encoded resistance genes were found (often causing co-selection), specific chromosomal mutations were distinct to either the zinc-evolved or control isolates. Our results also highlight the need for appropriate control lines that account for domestication, as the control line in our study increased susceptibility to antibiotics tested when compared to the originally isolated parental strain. The studies advances our understanding of evolution and spread of ARGs in natural polymicrobial communities and populations, and can in the long run help us forecast and model such processes in a more mechanistic way. While AMR can spread rapidly across communities, such transfer still encounters barriers that need further investigation. The cell envelope seems to be one important barrier to horizontal transfer of ARGs, but the studies also reveal ecological roles of resistance-plasmids in polymicrobial communities and a role for selective pressures other than antibiotics in fostering AMR.

This dissertation investigates the links between vertical and horizontal social stratification, political attitudes, and radical right support. It focuses on how individual sociodemographic attributes interact in forming radical right support, how grievances mediate support for different groups, and how horizontal and vertical dimensions of education and occupation shape radical right support and political attitudes.

Study I explores how gender, class, education, rural/urban residence, age, native/non-native background, and income interact to shape radical right support, using the Swedish Society-Opinion-Media (SOM) Survey (2015–2021). The results reveal that age is the most influential moderating factor, with educational and rural-urban political divides being much stronger among younger generations. Thus, there are stronger links between one´s position in the social structure and the probability of supporting the radical right among the younger generations. A replication with the European Social Survey (ESS) shows these results are generalizable to other Western European countries. Additionally, the study found some distinct pathways to radical right support across sociodemographic groups, with cultural threat perceptions driving support among particularly low-educated individuals, while crime concerns are a stronger driver among older individuals. However, contrary to common theoretical expectations, economic concerns do not disproportionately drive the socio-economically vulnerable toward the radical right.

Study II examines the links between horizontal aspects of education, political attitudes, and radical right support, using the SOM Survey 2011–2019, the ESS 2008, and the Swedish Level of Living Survey (LNU) 2000, 2010, and 2021. The study finds that support for the radical right varies significantly across fields of study, with graduates from sociocultural fields exhibiting substantially lower support than those from technical or agricultural fields. Analyses with panel data and comparisons of students who have spent different years in their respective fields of study in upper secondary school further suggest that sociocultural education is more liberalizing than education in other fields. These differences are partially mediated by horizontal, but not vertical, labor market allocation. On theoretical grounds, the study suggests that these patterns are likely partially explained by stronger political socialization into liberal-democratic values in sociocultural education.

Study III investigates the links between horizontal aspects of occupations and political attitudes. It evaluates the theoretical foundations of the Oesch class schema, which categorizes occupations based on vertical aspects (occupational skill content) and horizontally distinguished work logics. Using cross-sectional and panel data from the LNU survey 2010 and 2021, the study finds that technical object-oriented tasks are linked to cultural authoritarianism, partially explaining production workers’ authoritarian inclination. However, other key aspects of the schema´s links to political attitudes require theoretical reconsideration, as interpersonal tasks are not linked to cultural libertarianism, and increased managerial tasks are instead linked to more economic leftist views. The study proposes that the horizontal classification of occupational groups should be refined based on educational field requirements rather than subjective assessments of work logic.

Advancements in technology are increasingly driven by the development of new functional materials. One such family is the heavy fermions, obtained by combining rare-earth elements with metallic host material. These heavy fermions display exotic quantum mechanical properties at low temperatures. Key techniques that measures properties such as specific heat, magnetic susceptibility, and nuclear spin-lattice relaxation provide valuable insights of the interactions within these systems, enabling the exploration of their unique characteristics  and guiding the discovery of new related materials.

In this thesis, AC calorimetry is used to measure specific heat as a primary tool to characterize these materials. Specific heat contains all the contributions associated with different subsystems in the material. Accurate measurement and careful interpretation of the measurements are essential, as these materials comprise of multiple subsystems such as electronic, nuclear, and magnetic, having different time scales. Due to multiple time scales involved, traditional calorimetry methods become challenging. To solve this issue we here develop a new experimental technique based on AC calorimetry that can disentangle different contributions to specific heat at low temperatures. The technique, that we call Thermal Impedance Spectroscopy (TISP), allows independent measurement of the electronic and nuclear specific heat at low temperatures. This is because the relaxation time of the nuclear subsystem to equilibrate with the lattice (electrons and phonons) is slow and can be captured by the frequency response of the calorimeter-sample assembly. This relaxation time, known as the nuclear spin-lattice relaxation time T₁, provides an additional probe for the electronic subsystem. The method's effectiveness is demonstrated using indium, a known metallic system, with results aligning well with expectations and prior Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) studies.

TISP was applied to investigate several quantum materials, including heavy fermions close to or at a quantum critical point. The role of the magnetic field on the quantum criticality of these systems was investigated using TISP, and complementary techniques such as magnetic susceptibility and X-ray measurements were employed to further investigate these materials.

This thesis investigates preschool as a site for sexual pedagogy. It aims to generate knowledge about sexual pedagogical discourses in Swedish preschools and how these discourses, along with the agency of children and preschool practitioners, are constituted and reconstituted over time. 

The thesis is theoretically grounded in a discourse analytical approach, drawing inspiration from Norman Fairclough’s (1992/2008) critical discourse analysis and Judith Butler’s (1993/2021) theory of performativity. Based on an ethical standpoint that children can be understood as sexual subjects and that agency is always relational and dependent on interconnections, tension emerges between the support that enables agency and the restrictions that limit it. 

Methodologically, the study combines two empirical materials: sexuality education texts for educators published between 1969 and 2021, and focus group discussions with preschool practitioners. The texts are analysed using critical discourse analysis (Fairclough 1992/2008) to reveal how perceptions of children’s sexual play have changed over time. The focus group discussions are analysed using both critical discourse analysis and an age-critical and didactic analysis. These analyses provide insight into how practitioners negotiate their professional role within sexuality education discourses and how norms surrounding children and sexuality shape the conditions for both children’s and practitioners’ agency.

The results demonstrate that sexuality education discourses in preschool have changed over time; from an encouragement of children’s sexuality and sexual play to increasing restrictions. Based on the focus group discussions, two different perspectives on the child as a subject of rights emerge. With the practitioners’ support through the curriculum, the child is constituted as a sexual subject in two ways: with the right to sexuality as identity and the right to protection from sexuality as action. Since both practitioners’ and children’s agency is constituted in a reciprocal and relational process, the practitioner is also constituted in two distinct ways. Firstly, as part of a professional “we” alongside the curriculum and management, where the practitioner acts as the child’s advocate vis-à-vis parents whose views on children’s right to sexuality as identity differ from those of the preschool. Secondly, as a rule-follower in relation to sexuality as action, where the practitioner emerges as a monitor of children.

The thesis argues that sexuality education should be informed by professional considerations rooted in scientific knowledge and proven experience. Without education and discussion on children and sexuality, preschools risk becoming platforms for political agendas and unreflected norms. Education and reflection would strengthen practitioners’ professional agency and enhance children’s recognition as sexual subjects in diverse ways. The thesis advocates for a professional discourse on sexuality, sexuality education, and preschool-aged children, both within teacher education and in preschools. These discussions should integrate multiple perspectives, ensuring that children’s right to protection from sexual abuse and their right to sexual subjectivity are both addressed.

This study investigates the use of poetic word pairs such as ný ok nið (‘wax and wane’), líkna ok lækna (‘nurse and heal’), and lǫndum ok þegnum (‘lands and warriors’) in Old Norse poetry. These constructions are a common feature of Old Norse verse and the broader Germanic alliterative tradition, and have attracted scholarly attention since the 19^th century. Despite over a hundred years of research, however, no consensus exists regarding their defining characteristics, scope, or functions.

An extensive review of previous scholarship reveals the limitations of existing definitions. Different terms – such as binomials, formulaic pairs, and twin formulas – reflect competing interpretations, often based on conflicting criteria. For example, some scholars confine poetic word pairs to the half-line, while others recognise instances that span the caesura or even the line break. Similarly, while many studies focus exclusively on pairs of single words, occasional references to multi-word conjuncts suggest a broader and more complex reality. This fragmentation and lack of clarity regarding the fundamental properties of poetic word pairs highlight the need for a reassessment of this poetic device within a more inclusive framework.

To address these issues, this study outlines a comprehensive framework under the label of syndetic constructions. It encompasses the full range of manifestations documented in the literature while distinguishing the device from ordinary coordination through its ability to convey a unitary meaning or serve a unitary function. Applying this framework to a corpus of over 850 stanzas of Old Norse poetry, specifically the verses preserved in fornaldarsögur, the study identifies a selection of 425 syndetic constructions. These are systematically analysed in terms of metrical configuration, complexity, grammatical composition, and acoustic cohesion, among other properties.

The analysis reveals that syndetic constructions extend far beyond the traditional notion of poetic word pairs, ranging from simple instances confined to a single verse to more complex configurations spanning multiple verses. Additionally, the study explores the various ways in which conjuncts are acoustically connected, demonstrating a broader range of cohesion strategies than previously recognised. These include not only alliteration – long regarded as a typical trait of poetic word pairs – but also inrhyme and other phonetic patterns that enhance their cohesion and rhetorical impact. In addition to quantitative analyses, this study presents numerous examples, offering glimpses of the creative process of medieval skalds.

Both prototypical word pairs and more elaborate and extensive syndetic constructions appear pervasively across the corpus, in both eddic and, notably, skaldic verse, suggesting that they constitute an integral feature of Old Norse poetic practice. Their widespread use across diverse metres and poetic contexts highlights their continued productivity and adaptability, even as poetic traditions evolved.

By providing a unified framework and detailed classification, this study reconciles conflicting descriptions in previous scholarship and presents fresh insights into an ancient poetic device and the compositional practices of Old Norse poets. In doing so, it opens new avenues for research into the interplay of metre, syntax, and semantics in alliterative traditions across the Germanic languages.

The deep decarbonisation of the power sector emphasises the urgent need for the increased integration of variable renewable energy (VRE) sources such as wind and solar power. While VRE provides emission-free and cost-effective energy in its operations, its intermittent production necessitates the utilisation of variation-management mechanisms, such as storage, transmission, and demand-side response. In this context, the Nordic countries aim for strategic leadership in navigating the complexities of the sustainable-energy transition by leveraging existing flexible capacities, particularly hydro reservoirs. 

However, flexible producers, such as hydro capacities, may have incentives that differ from those of society in a deregulated electricity industry such as that of the Nordic region. Large power companies may have enough flexible capacity to manipulate electricity prices through their own generation output. Empirical analyses of the Nordic electricity market based on data from 2011 to 2013, for instance, have identified signs of market power exercised by hydro and fossil-fuelled producers in Swedish price zones. This market power could increase in a future power system with higher VRE output that needs more flexibility. Furthermore, the dynamics introduced by CO2 pricing, combined with the emergence of prosumers, who are agents engaged in both electricity consumption and generation, may bolster firms’ scope for strategic behaviour, thereby exacerbating unfavourable economic and environmental outcomes. 

Simultaneously, policymakers face the formidable challenge of integrating intermittent output from VRE, even in a well-functioning power sector with flexible generation. Focusing on transmission planning is critical for integrat- ing VRE effectively. Proactive transmission expansion allows transmission system operators (TSOs) to balance supply and demand across regions with complementary VRE profiles, reducing reliance on hydropower producers who might exert market power. However, the misalignment of incentives between producers and society, compounded by political constraints that prevent the accurate pricing of CO2 emissions according to social costs, complicates the challenging landscape of decarbonisation. Therefore, transmission planning must be proactively recalibrated to account for economic and environmental distortions to mitigate welfare losses from imperfect competition and incomplete CO2 pricing. 

This thesis utilises a game-theoretic framework to capture the behavioural dynamics of agents and the optimal transmission-expansion strategy in a VRE-dominated power system. Such an approach reflects the complex interactions between firms’ strategic incentives and climate-policy imperatives, thereby en- abling a thorough understanding of the complex challenges of transitioning to a decarbonised power system. 

The Åkulla Au-Te deposit is located in the Skellefte District (SD), Northern Sweden, a world-class mineral district with abundant volcanic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. The deposit is one of 4 active mines in SD, has produced and currently contains 11.8 Mt of ore grading 4.1 g/t Au, 7.7 g/t Ag, 150.0 g/t Te, 89.7 g/t Bi and 1.0 wt% S. The Åkulla Au-Te deposit is hosted by an upward-pointing, irregular lens shaped body of strongly altered coherent dacites, andesites and breccias, oriented sub-parallel to the steeply dipping strata. The hydrothermal alteration is strongly zoned with a quartz-topaz±sericite±andalusite core, surrounded by sericite-quartz±chlorite±andalusite±sulfide association with minor occurrences of corundum in sericite-chlorite rock, followed outwards by sericite±andalusite±sulfide and chlorite±sulfide associations. The outer sulfide-bearing alteration zones continue to surface to the small Åkulla Östra semi-massive sulfide body. The mineralization and host rocks have been metamorphosed to upper greenschist facies, are flattered and elongated sub-parallel to the D2 foliation and lineation, indicating their formation pre-deformation. The Åkulla Au-Te deposit differs from the VMS deposits in SD by being sulfide poor (<3%), native Au and Te enriched.

The four main breccia facies hosting the deposit formed through synvolcanic quench brecciation and subsequent synvolcanic hydrothermal brecciation. The occurrence and variations of quartz and topaz alteration within coherent units, breccia clasts and matrices indicate that the rocks were altered before and during brecciation. The near vertical orientation of the graded beds in mass flow deposits is a product of block rotation during synvolcanic extension and subsequent deformation (Paper I). Alteration mineral- and elemental- zoning show a strong correlation. Au and Te enrichments are found in almost every alteration zone. However, the quartz and topaz dominant core is strongly depleted in several elements (major, chalcophile and some HFS elements) but enriched in Si, Ag, Bi, Sb and Mo. The corundum occurrences correlate with Si depletion and Al, Ti, Zr, Nb enrichment. Above and surrounding the central core, a zone of Fe, S, Cu, Zn, Ni and Pb enrichment occurs (Paper III). This pattern reflects changes in the bulk composition of the host rocks due to interaction with a hot and acidic fluid in the core, to progressively lower temperatures and reduced acidity fluids towards the margins. Hydrothermal alteration conditions with interpreted synvolcanic formation of topaz and corundum (Paper II) in addition to the elemental zoning suggest a core of relatively low pH (2-4) and temperatures ≥400°C, decreasing to around 375°C in the corundum bearing zone to an outer, near neutral pH and lower temperature (<250°C) zone (Paper II-III).

The Åkulla Au-Te deposit is interpreted as a synvolcanic magmatic-hydrothermal deposit that formed at or near the seafloor. The relationship between brecciation and alteration, abundance of topaz, zonation of alteration minerals and chemical elements suggest that an acidic, high temperature, F-rich fluid most likely of magmatic-hydrothermal origin was responsible for the brecciation, alteration and mineralization. The Åkulla Au-Te deposit represents a magmatic end-member style of VMS deposit in the SD. The distinct hydrothermal alteration conditions and mineralization styles should have implications for exploration models in the SD and other VMS districts.

This dissertation contributes to a deeper understanding of how profound educational and socioeconomic transformations since the late 20th century have influenced the changing relationship between educational attainment and labor market outcomes, evolving patterns of educational inequality by social background, and trends in intergenerational income mobility.

Study I examines the role of education in explaining gender differences in intergenerational income mobility in Sweden. Drawing on register data for cohorts born between 1958 and 1979, it finds that income mobility increased and then stabilized for men, while it steadily declined for women. For both genders, reduced educational inequality contributed to increased mobility. However, for women, this effect was offset by a steady rise in educational returns among cohorts born since the late 1960s. These findings offer new insights into the role of education in driving mobility patterns within the broader context of evolving gender equality.

Study II examines changes in the education–occupation linkage in Sweden from 1960 to 2013. The rapid expansion of upper tertiary education and occupational upgrading shifted composition toward more tightly linked categories. Yet these gains were largely offset by weakening structural linkages at upper secondary vocational and lower tertiary levels, where ties to specific occupations eroded considerably. Taken together, educational expansion and occupational upgrading appear relatively balanced and have jointly contributed to a closer alignment between the educational system and the occupational structure in Sweden. This underscores the importance of re-evaluating educational policies to balance skill upgrading with appropriate labor market linkages of vocational education.

Study III analyzes changes in the college wage premium across 49 countries and 810 country-years between 1980 and 2022, using data from the Luxembourg Income Study. Since 2000, there has been a marked decline in the wage premium, beginning in Latin America and spreading to Eastern and Central Europe. In contrast, most Western developed countries saw rising premiums throughout the 2000s, followed by stabilization or decline after 2010. Macro-level factors related to supply, demand, and institutions explain much of the cross-national variation but account for only part of the within-country changes. The global flattening of the college wage premium calls for further research to better understand its implications for the relationship between educational attainment and labor market inequality.

Computational chemistry addresses chemical problems by modelling chemical processes through calculations, and has proven to be an excellent tool for conducting chemical research. This thesis focuses on the modelling of chemical reactions using density functional theory. These chemical reactions are divided into two categories: two reaction mechanisms in organometallic catalysis, and three different binding and/or mechanistic studies involving supramolecular cavitands. The calculations uncover mechanistic details and origins of selectivity which experiments alone could not have explained.

The first organometallic reaction studied concerns the dehydrogenation of amines with (cyclopentadienone)iron carbonyl. The results show a stepwise mechanism involving a rate-limiting hydride transfer followed by a much faster proton transfer. The calculations contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the reaction mechanism in general.  The second reaction studied is the gold-catalysed cycloisomerisation of acetylenic acids to lactones. A detailed mechanism of the cycloisomerisation reaction was calculated, and the origins of the observed regioselectivity and stereoselectivity were uncovered. The results show a strong favouring of a mechanism involving an anti-addition of the carboxylic acid to the alkyne moiety, yielding (Z)-exo-alkylidene γ-lactones in the case of substituted alkynes. 

The first reaction in a supramolecular cavitand considered here is the aforementioned cycloisomerisation of acetylenic acids, this time in a gold-functionalised resorcin[4]arene-based cavitand. The calculations give insights into the structure-activity relationship between the cavitand and several substituted alkyne-acids. Furthermore, the calculations show that the cavitand itself has a modest catalytic power. A binding study of several hydrophilic molecules in a resorcin[4]arene-based cavitand with pyridinyl-benzimidazole panels was conducted. It was found that the water molecules form a hydrogen-bonding network between the panels of the cavitand, as well as on the hydrophilic rim. These interactions explain the high binding affinity of hydrophilic molecules to a hydrophobic cavitand. Finally, the mechanism for the hydrolysis of acetylcholine in a similar resorcin[4]arene-based cavitand was investigated to discern possible catalytic applications. The calculations show that the hydrolysis reaction is associated with prohibitively high barriers inside of the cavitand, and hence the cavitand cannot catalyse this reaction.

Marine heatwaves are autocorrelation events exceeding a given  threshold for a given minimum duration. Marine heatwaves are driven locally by heat fluxes through the surface of a given volume, for example incoming solar radiation at the ocean surface, and horizontal advection of warm water within. Local drivers are, however, the consequence of weather systems and super-regional phenomena like teleconnections. Marine heatwaves can further be closely tied to extreme temperatures, with far-reaching consequences for ecosystems as for example coral reefs. This thesis is concerned with drivers of marine heatwaves, from local to super-regional, and furthermore with the attribution of extreme temperatures as cause for the decline of specific ecosystems.

This thesis aims to propose a method of balancing and identify appropriate legal tools of balancing in the context of AI-driven video-based Active Assisted Living (AAL) technologies. AAL represents a suite of technologies integrated into computer systems that leverage AI to assist older adults in their daily lives, enabling them to live independently and remain active.

While numerous studies assert that AAL technologies keep improving their ability to assist individuals in need, this optimistic prospect must be juxtaposed to several concerns. These concerns are often conflicts of interests, i.e., situations in which pursuing one interest may hinder another. Conflicts of interest can be approached in many ways, one of which is balancing. That presents an issue of balancing as a conflict management tool in the AAL context. In the legal context, the problem is more specific: What is balancing, and how could it be used to prevent or solve conflict?

Consequently, the main subject of this book is structuring balancing as a legal method of conflict management in the AAL context. The investigation focuses on European law and AAL deployed at private homes. The thesis begins by identifying stakeholders and their primary interests. Next, the work proposes to merge the risk identification method with a dogmatic analysis of law to provide a method of identification of potential conflicts. Subsequently, the book presents two main approaches to balancing recognised in the case law of the European Court of Human Rights and the Court of Justice of the European Union: proportionality and compromising. Each method is analysed and presented in a structured way, tailored to the AAL context. Building on these findings, a catalogue of legal tools for balancing is constructed. Finally, the thesis examines the possibility of an integrated model of balancing, proposes how it could be constructed, and evaluates its potential role as risk and quality management systems required by the AI Act.

This thesis makes contributions to the field of legal sciences by examining the concept of balance, methods of balancing, and generating a catalogue of balancing tools. Moreover, it advances the research on AAL technologies by proposing a novel stakeholders’ classification that merges analytical categorisations with those grounded in legal frameworks and identifying balancing tools applicable in the AAL context. Furthermore, it proposes possible models of risk and quality management systems under the AI Act. 

The European X-Ray Free Electron Laser (EuXFEL) is a free-electron laser that generates coherent X-ray pulses with energies between 0.26 and 25 keV. Radiation is generated as electrons with energies up to 17.5 GeV are subjected to the periodic magnetic field while traveling through long arrangements of permanent magnets called undulators. Measurements show that stray radiation is present outside the beam pipe in the EuXFEL undulator systems. It can potentially damage permanent magnets and diagnostic and correction equipment located along the beam pipe. This thesis gives an overview of the stray radiation at EuXFEL undulator systems. Besides Radfet dosimeters and gamma and neutron monitors installed near the undulators, additional detectors were used within the scope of this work. Gafchromic films placed in different undulator cells give information on the spatial distribution of the absorbed dose near permanent magnets and other components. The photon energy distribution near the beam pipe was measured with two gamma-ray CZT spectrometers. Measurements are supported by Geant4 Monte Carlo simulations of electron interactions with the beam pipe wall.

Measurements and simulations show that radiation is distributed non-uniformly along individual undulator segments and the whole undulator system. It means that some of the permanent magnets are exposed to higher doses. It can lead to non-uniform magnetic field degradation and issues with phase matching between electron and photon fields. The presented results indicate that the origin of stray radiation differs in the upstream and downstream parts of the undulator system. In the upstream undulator part, it is created as a result of electron interactions with the beam pipe. In the downstream undulator part, it is dominated by low-energy synchrotron radiation. Geant4 simulations show that neutrons with energies exceeding 1 MeV are created as a result of high-energy electrons interacting with the beam pipe. They can cause permanent damage to the undulator permanent magnets. Radfet and spectrometer measurements show that the intensity of the stray radiation depends on the charge passing through the undulators, the electron energy and the undulator gap. Careful choice of these parameters can reduce the stray radiation level in the undulator systems.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a diverse class of synthetic chemicals that have garnered significant attention due to their persistence, widespread occurrence, and adverse health effects. Thousands of PFAS are registered globally, occupying a wide chemical space and requiring diverse methods for their identification and quantification. Despite vast improvements in analytical coverage over the last two decades, there are increasing concerns that unknown or emerging compounds continue to be overlooked. To address these concerns, a number of new analytical strategies have emerged: one is the so-called fluorine mass balance (FMB) approach, which involves subtracting the fluorine attributed to target PFAS (∑PFAS) from the total- or extractable organic- fluorine (TF and EOF, respectively) to deduce the quantity of unknown PFAS in a sample. This approach can be used to prioritize samples with high levels of unidentified fluorine for further interrogation. A second approach involves high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)-based suspect and non-target screening, which aims to identify novel PFAS in environmental samples. This thesis develops and/or applies these emerging analytical methods in order to improve our understanding of PFAS sources and occurrence in the environment, with FMB experiments applied throughout Papers I to III, and suspect- and nontarget screening used in Papers II-IV.

In Paper I, an FMB of different components of artificial turf (backing, filling, and blades) revealed high levels of total fluorine in all samples (ranges of 16−313, 12−310, and 24−661 μg of F/g in backing, filling, and blades, respectively), while EOF and target PFAS occurred in <42% of all samples (<200 and <1 ng of F/g, respectively). Further experiments confirmed the absence of both fluoride and perfluoroalkyl acid precursors in these samples. Collectively, these results point toward the occurrence of a polymeric organofluorine, consistent with patent literature, and shines a light on the use of fluoropolymers in plastic and rubber production which might complicate disposal of these products.

In Paper II, both FMB and HRMS-based suspect screening were applied to liver samples from a variety of marine mammals. As part of this work, an ionization efficiency-based model for quantification of substances lacking analytical standards was trained and validated. Thereafter, the model was used to quantify PFAS detected by suspect screening, and ultimately reduced the quantity of unidentified organofluorine from 13-70% (median: 32%) down to 0-27% (median: 17%).

Paper III delved further into FMB and non-target analysis of marine mammals, this time focusing on blubber, where unexpectedly high levels of unknown EOF were previously uncovered in the blubber of a Greenlandic killer whale. Using a combination of ion exchange solid phase extraction, gas chromatography-ion mobility-high resolution mass spectrometry (GC-IM-HRMS), and collision cross section (CCS)-based prioritization (i.e. CCS [Ų] < 0.2 Ų × m/z + 100 Ų) the number of plausible organofluorine peaks was reduced from several thousand down to several hundred. Structures were proposed for the most abundant on this list based on fragmentation. Five novel fluorotelomer sulfones were identified at confidence level 1 (CL 1: identified with standard) and quantified, accounting for up to 75% of the EOF in blubber.

Finally, in Paper IV methanol extracts of municipal wastewater treatment plant sludge, as well as sludge and dust standard reference materials (SRMs), were characterized by liquid chromatography-IM-HRMS, and the same CCS filter used in Paper III was applied, together with two additional PFAS prioritisation strategies (mass defect and mass/number of carbon atoms). A total of

Fluorine mass balance, suspect, and non-target screening are critical tools for expanding our understanding of PFAS contamination in diverse environmental and biological matrices. Integrating these advancements is essential for more comprehensive exposure assessments and informed policy decisions.

The enzyme cytochrome c-dependent nitric oxide reductase (cNOR) catalyzes the reduction of nitric oxide into nitrous oxide during microbial denitrification. The binuclear active site of cNOR consists of two iron ions: one heme b₃ iron and one non-heme iron (Fe_B). Interestingly, the Fe_B cofactor requires the metallochaperones NorQ, a AAA+ ATPase, and NorD, a VWA domain protein, for proper insertion. In this thesis, I have characterized NorQ and NorD biochemically and structurally, to reveal that NorQ forms a hexameric ring, binding one copy of NorD in its central pore and that interaction with the cNOR target occurs between NorD and the cytoplasmic surface of cNOR. NorQ is a molecular motor, fueled by ATP hydrolysis and causes conformational changes in NorD. The movements in NorD are further translated into conformational changes in cNOR, enabling iron insertion. In addition, I have identified cNORs that are independent of metallochaperones and compared them to those that are chaperone dependent. The comparison shows that cNORs without chaperones have a water-filled pathway leading from the cytoplasm to the active site, plugged by hydrophobic residues in cNORs with chaperones. This indicates that cNORs without chaperones might be electrogenic and has implications for the evolution of the NOR family. 

Nanocellulose is an excellent candidate to replace traditionally fossil-derived materials. Although several cellulose nanomaterials (CNM) have reached the commercial market, the full potential of nanocellulose has yet to be realized. For the continued development of CNM for realistic applications, a deeper understanding on the influence of moisture on the structure and dynamics of these hygroscopic materials is needed. In this thesis, a combination of neutron and X-ray scattering has been deployed to evaluate the moisture-induced structural and dynamical alterations of CNM.

Inelastic neutron scattering (INS) was used to access the full vibrational spectra of nanocellulose with three different crystallinities, revealing that moisture primarily interacts with the disordered regions of the cellulose chains. A combination of INS, small angle neutron scattering, and wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) was used to link moisture-induced structural modifications in anisotropic cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) foams to the population change in the phonon density of states; an increasing separation distance between nanoparticles was suggested to suppress the effect of higher crystallinity index and larger coherence length.

The hydration-dependent dynamics and temperature-dependent water diffusion in nanocellulose were investigated using quasielastic neutron scattering. A localized rotational motion of the C6 hydrogens could be detected, and hydration was found to result in an increased cellulose chain mobility. At 270 K, water was found to diffuse independently of cellulose, with the extracted diffusion coefficient matching that of bulk water. At 310 K, the diffusion coefficient was lower than that of bulk water. This could be attributed to water diffusing on the surface of CNC, where the water-cellulose interactions may slow the diffusion.

Anisotropic cellulose nanofibril (CNF) foams obtained from upcycled cotton waste textiles (upCNF) and softwood (wCNF) were subjected to a relative humidity range of 10 and 90% and their structural humidity-response evaluated using in-situ small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), WAXS, and X-ray microtomography. Across the investigated length scales, the upCNF foams exhibited a superior integrity compared to the wCNF foams, highlighting the potential of cotton waste textiles as a source of nanocellulose.

Multidirectional neutron dark-field tomography (MD-NDFT) has been demonstrated as a non-destructive and non-invasive method for advanced characterization of hierarchical materials. This was achieved by using the simple hierarchical structure of anisotropic CNC and CNF foams as model systems, where the alignment of nanoparticles in the full foams was revealed by MD-NDFT and cross-validated with SAXS on the nanometer scale. The dactyl club of the mantis shrimp was also measured, highlighting the potential of MD-NDFT for nature’s more complex hierarchical constructs.

This dissertation reconstructs the private library of the Polish nobleman Władysław Konstanty Wituski (1603–1655) from its surviving remains by cataloging the printed books from his collection preserved at Skokloster Castle and his handwritten school notebooks housed in the Swedish National Archives in Stockholm. Wituski’s book collection was taken from Poland as war booty during the Swedish-Polish war of 1655–1660. Its preservation is particularly remarkable in the light of the fate of other early modern libraries of the nobility in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were largely dispersed or destroyed as a result of a succession of wars over the centuries.

Through bibliographical analysis, the study explores Wituski’s book ownership and reading habits, emphasizing his engagement with specific works through handwritten marginalia and flyleaf notes. The bindings in Wituski’s collection offer valuable insights into the material culture of early modern libraries of the nobility in the Commonwealth. By comparing his library to other book collections of the Polish-Lithuanian nobility and to a contemporary treatise on the ideal noble library by Jakub Kazimierz Haur, the study evaluates the degree to which Wituski’s collection conformed to the book-owning practices of his social milieu, and identifies notable divergences.

Drawing on Wituski’s notebooks and correspondence, the study also examines his education at the Jesuit College in Pułtusk and at the Kraków Academy, his educational journey through Denmark, the Dutch Republic, and England, and his service in the Dutch West India Company in Brazil. Additionally, the study investigates Wituski’s parliamentary career, his duties associated with the so-called land offices which he held, and his ties to the Vasa court.

This dissertation demonstrates how Wituski’s library is intertwined with both his personal biography and the broader socio-political, intellectual, and religious currents of his time. A close examination of his collection has uncovered previously unknown aspects of Wituski’s life while also reaffirming established facts. The books he owned reflect the breadth of his experiences – ranging from his formal education, travels, and courtly connections to his political involvement and land management. This case study of his library also provides insight not only into the book-owning practices, but also the world of ideas, cultural needs, and aspirations of the Polish-Lithuanian nobility in the seventeenth century, which in turn further enhances our understanding of their private libraries. 

This thesis focuses on the rational design, synthesis, and performance optimization of semimetal-based atomically dispersed catalysts—particularly selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te)—for use in energy-related electrochemical reactions. Unlike widely studied transition metals, this work centers on the relatively unexplored territory of semimetals, leveraging their unique chemical properties and coordination environments. By tailoring single-atom or cluster-scale catalytic sites, we exploit their high atomic dispersion and unique local structures to achieve superior electrochemical catalytic activity.

Despite their exceptional capabilities, atomically dispersed catalysts often undergo structural evolution—changes in morphology, elemental distribution, and coordination environments—during catalysis reaction. To address this challenge, we employed in situ X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) techniques with complementary characterization methods, we systematically examined the synthesis of these catalysts, their local atomic coordination environments, electronic structures, and semimetal-support interactions. Additionally, we explored their evolution under operational conditions, identifying key deactivation pathways. Consequently, we developed a “synthesis–structure–performance” framework for rational catalyst design. Key advancements include:

1. Revealing the Evolution of Active Sites in Atomically Dispersed Se Catalysts for Electrocatalytic Hydrazine Oxidation

We developed a structurally uniform atomically dispersed Se catalyst (Se@C-1000) with remarkable electrocatalytic performance in hydrazine oxidation (HzOR). In situ XAFS demonstrated the initial “Se–C₄” structure readily adsorbs hydroxide ions in the electrolyte solution to form the active species “HO–SeC₄”, reducing the reaction energy barrier and enabling highly efficient HzOR.

2. Coordination Engineering to Modulate the Local Covalency of Atomically Dispersed Te Sites for Enhanced Durability in Electrochemical CO₂ Reduction

Using a rapid spark plasma sintering (SPS) carbonization approach, we fabricated an atomically dispersed Te catalyst (Te@N3) featuring strong bond covalency and broken symmetry. At an applied potential of −0.8 V vs. RHE, Te@N3 achieved a CO selectivity of 98.6% and a Faradaic efficiency above 96% for over 400 hours at 80 mA cm⁻². Theoretical calculations revealed that enhanced covalency in Te–N bonds mitigates structural degradation under high electrolysis rates, preserving the active site’s integrity.

3. Time-Resolved In Situ XAFS Reveals the Chemical Evolution of Te Cluster Catalysts for Durable Hydrogen Evolution

We synthesized Te cluster catalysts (Te-ACs@NC) supported on porous carbon, achieving outstanding hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) performance. Time-resolved in situ XAFS revealed repetitive deactivation–regeneration cycles triggered by a surface phase transition. Even after 10 cycles (480 hours), Te-ACs@NC retained 85% of its initial activity.

4. Anchoring Atomically Dispersed Se Sites in MXene Vacancies for Efficient Electrocatalytic Oxygen Reduction

Leveraging defect-rich structures and large surface areas of MXene, we anchored Se atoms onto Mo₂C-type MXene (Se@Mo₂CT_X) through a self-reduction process. The Se atoms were confined in Mo vacancies as isolated atoms in Se@Mo₂CT_X and exhibited exceptional activity and stability in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR).

The self-employed are a relatively small, but important group of workers. They contribute to society and its economy through growth, innovation, and job-creation. Self-employed work is characterised by working for oneself; it is associated with high levels of autonomy, but also uncertainty about income, high demands, and sometimes lack of social context at work. This may lead to strenuous work situations and thus impaired health, which over time can affect work negatively, in a reciprocal relationship where health and work affect each other. Despite the importance of self-employed workers, health and the unique circumstances of self-employed work are still understudied. Further, while they are a diverse group, this heterogeneity has seldom been considered in earlier research. 

This thesis investigates health in terms of wellbeing, illbeing, and self-rated health in relationship to work and demographic characteristics, entrance into, and exit out of self-employment, thereby taking the heterogeneity of self-employed workers into account. The thesis comprises three studies based on survey data to: compare mental illbeing in self-employed workers, organisationally-employed workers, and those combining the two types of work (Study I); study the health of workers engaging in self-employment over time (Study II); and compare wellbeing and its relationship to experiences of work in self-employed and organisationally-employed workers (Study III). In all studies, advanced statistical methods using the Bayesian approach were applied to accurately model the complexity of the longitudinal or multilevel data.

In Study I, we found that illbeing in self-employed, organisationally-employed workers and combinators does not substantially differ. In Study II we demonstrate that workers engaging in self-employment belong to four distinct health profiles, which they also mostly maintain over time. Furthermore, entrance into and exit out of self-employed work, and work characteristics, but not demographic characteristics, are related to these health profiles of the self-employed. Lastly, in Study III, we found that experience of self-determination and meaning during the performance of work tasks have stronger associations with wellbeing than employment type (self-employed or organisationally employed).

In summary, this thesis shows that there are few substantial differences in illbeing between organisationally-employed workers, self-employed workers, and combinators. Further, and perhaps explaining some of these results, there is variation in the health of self-employed workers, both between different individuals, and over time, indicating that heterogeneity among self-employed workers is substantial. Lastly, also further explaining why health differences between workers of different employment forms are small, differences in wellbeing between self-employed and employed workers can be explained by the tasks that these workers perform during the day, beyond that of their employment form.

This thesis shows the importance of taking aspects of health, time, heterogeneity of workers, and assessment of these into account to gain more in-depth understanding of the interrelations between health and self-employed work.  

The thesis investigates settlement on the Vikbolandet peninsula in north-eastern Östergötland in the period 200 to 1600. The key question is what happened between 500 and 600, the transition to the Late Iron Age. The extent to which settlement sites and grave fields were moved and settlements were abandoned are some of the issues addressed. The social structure evident from the various types of settlements is another focus.

Information about the sixteenth-century and medieval settlements has been gathered in retrogressive studies of seventeenth-century maps and surveys, with some late medieval charters. One objective has been to identify medieval home farms and manors.

The Late Iron Age is studied using the various types of graves and the grave fields they comprised. Grave fields fall into three groups, which makes it possible to distinguish between different types of settlements. The spatial relationships between them are crucial to the analysis. 

An extensive grave field with several burial mounds, of which some were large (13 metres or more in diameter), is taken to signify a large landowner’s farm. The burial mound is seen as a symbol of odal-right, the embodiment of inheritance and farm ownership. The villages and farms that had grave fields with burial mounds have been categorised as odal-farms. In addition to the 17 identified as large landowners’ farms, the group included many other farms. It is assumed that villages with grave fields but without burial mounds were in many cases farmed by free people in a precursor to medieval tenant system. Several villages have Iron Age-type place names but no Late Iron Age grave fields. It is argued that some may have been farmed by slaves, who were not buried in grave fields.

The spatial relationships between the settlements have also been studied, especially those in the vicinity of the large landowners’ farms. Many of the settlements with no grave fields were close to the large landowners’ farms. On the other neighbouring farms the grave fields were often small and had only a few burial mounds, if any. The impression is that many large landowners’ farms dominated the area and had a dampening effect on burials and especially the construction of burial mounds.

The key question is how many of the Late Iron Age farms and villages can be said to originate in the Middle Iron Age. Settlements with at least 25 Late Iron Age graves and an Early Iron Age grave field that may have continued in use until the sixth century are assumed to have originated in the Middle Iron Age (200-550 A.D.). A large number of villages and farms can be dated to that period, surprisingly often with continuity of settlement or only brief relocation. 

In the Late Iron Age, however, settlement patterns seem gradually to have expanded. In the Roman Iron Age, there had probably been numerous settlements in Vikbolandet. If it had been as densely settled then as it was at the dawn of the Middle Ages, there must have been a significant drop in the number of settlements in the sixth century at the transition to the Late Iron Age.

This dissertation has two aspirations. The first one is to highlight specific problems in education and trace their philosophical roots. It points out a tendency in the way we think about and approach education to see it in terms of its instrumental goal rather than its meaning and place in our lives. This approach renders education a reductive and customised concept that exists for the achievement of certain assumed and predetermined ends. To fulfil these ends, educational planning principles rely on assumptions that defuse the complexity of the human experience and overlook the concept of the other. This thesis argues that these problems, which are the reliance on fixed ends and the dismissal of the notion of the other, have roots in the Western philosophical grounding of education. 

The second aspiration is to present the concept of education as a journey: an alternative non-instrumental approach to education based on Stanley Cavell’s concept of Emersonian Moral Perfectionism. It is an approach that views education as a perpetual, open-ended journey of growth and transcendence that we embark upon together with the other. Through overcoming the notion of fixed ends and placing the other in a neighbouring position on the same level as the self, education as a journey illuminates a way out of the aforementioned problems of education. It does so by, first and foremost, focusing on changing the way we think about and coexist with the concept of education, before we start to consider solutions and applications. Through exploring Cavellian ideas like nonconformity, romanticism, justice, lostness and the ordinary, this dissertation explores the perfectionist concept of education as a journey. 

This dissertation concludes by suggesting that this journey is always taken on a vehicle of hope: a hope, especially for those who feel powerless, silenced, unseen or unheard in education systems, that it is possible to navigate the difficult condition of education. Embarking on this journey is a process of planting a seed of gradual and soft revolutionary change—a process of finding hardness in the soft and power in the invisible and silent.