Many high-income societies have seen two parallel trends in recent decades: falling fertility rates and an increasing prevalence of mental health issues among young adults. Yet, the association between mental health and fertility remains underexplored, especially with respect to fertility preferences and their realisation. This study examines how depression, one of the most common mental disorders, relates to two fertility outcomes: (1) reporting a positive short-term fertility intention, and (2) realising such an intention. The study uses data from the Norwegian and Swedish Generations and Gender Surveys from 2007/2008 to 2012/2013, together with their register-based follow-ups. To measure depression, we use the 7-item, shortened version of the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D Scale). Results show that depression is negatively associated with the propensity to report a positive fertility intention among Norwegian women and the propensity to realise a positive fertility intention within three years among Swedish women. Among men, depression is not significantly associated with either of the two outcomes. This study contributes new evidence on how depression may influence fertility, advancing the understanding of the determinants of fertility behaviour as well as the consequences of a widespread mental disorder.

Overqualification is one of the key labor market disadvantages that the children of immigrants born in the host society—the second-generation (G2)—disproportionately experience compared to the majority population. A higher prevalence of overqualification among the G2 may result from their strategic choice to circumvent persistent unemployment but also from the use of overqualification as a stepping stone into adequate employment —as predicted by career mobility theory. In light of this consideration, our paper investigates 1) to what extent overqualification and unemployment differently lead to career progression into adequately matched employment and 2) how this varies between the second-generation and majority populations. This study draws on Swedish register data on the total population and applies dynamic correlated random-effects multinomial logistic models to investigate year-to-year transitions across labor market states. Our results show that the chances of moving to adequate employment are higher for unemployed individuals than for overqualified workers. This result, which holds for both the majority population and G2 groups, is against the idea that overqualification serves as a stepping stone. We find that the chances of transitioning from overqualification and unemployment to adequate employment are higher for the majority population compared to most G2 groups. Although not the main focus of this paper, our analysis also provides evidence of higher risks for G2 overqualified workers to become unemployed and for G2 unemployed individuals to remain entrapped in unemployment. Together, these findings indicate a vicious cycle of career disadvantages for the G2.

Overqualification – possessing qualifications exceeding job requirements – is a persistent challenge in many high-income countries and disproportionately affects migrant workers. However, little is known about how migrants’ overqualification influences their job satisfaction across different groups. Using the Labour Force Survey and Heckman selection models, this study examines these dynamics in Italy – a revealing case given its relatively recent migration history, rapidly ageing population, and highly segmented labour market – while also speaking to broader debates on migrant integration in contemporary destination countries. Specifically, we analyse (1) differences in overqualification risks between natives and migrants across age-at-arrival groups, and (2) how the association between overqualification and job satisfaction varies with age at arrival. The latter is a crucial factor since it captures migrants’ exposure to host-country education and institutional contexts. Results show that migrants, especially those arriving after age 18, face substantially higher risks of overqualification. Yet the negative association between overqualification and job satisfaction is markedly weaker among them. This ‘overqualification–job satisfaction paradox’ may reflect psychological adaptation, differing comparison standards, or selective attrition from the labour market. Overall, the findings highlight mechanisms that enrich our understanding of how structural disadvantages and subjective experiences interact in shaping migrant labour market integration.

Children of immigrants born in the host country–the second generation (G2)–face higher risks of unemployment and overqualification compared to the majority native population in Western Europe. While the health effects of unemployment and overqualification are well documented, it remains unclear whether these factors impact the mental health of the G2 in the same way as in the majority population. This study uses Swedish register data to examine the association between different labor market disadvantages, i.e., unemployment and overqualification, and mental health outcomes among the G2 and the majority population. The outcome was measured as time to the first prescription of psychotropic medications (anxiolytics, sedatives, hypnotics, and antidepressants). Descriptive findings showed that psychotropic prescription rates are higher among G2 groups compared to the majority population. Cox proportional hazards models, adjusted for demographic and socioeconomic factors, indicated that unemployment similarly impacts mental health across origin groups, suggesting that being unemployed does not contribute to the mental health inequality between the G2 and the majority population. G2 individuals, especially G2 European individuals, showed higher risks of psychotropic prescriptions across all employment types. These findings imply that improving the labor market position is not sufficient to address mental health inequalities between the G2 and the majority population.

The children of immigrants born in the host country—the second generation (G2)—encounter several challenges in the labor market and often lag behind the majority population (natives with two native-born parents) in many Western European countries. Overqualification, defined as possessing educational qualifications exceeding those required by one’s job, is one important yet understudied aspect of G2's socioeconomic integration. While previous research consistently reports that foreign-born immigrants (the first generation, G1) are overrepresented among the overqualified workforce, it remains unclear whether this disadvantage extends to the G2 and how it impacts their socioeconomic outcomes. This doctoral dissertation leverages Swedish register data to explore the relationship between overqualification and the socioeconomic integration of the G2 in Sweden, focusing on the accumulation of negative labor market and health consequences.

Study Ⅰ explores the patterns of overqualification among the G2 in Sweden, comparing them to both the majority population and the G1. It also investigates heterogeneity within the G2, considering their diverse ancestral origins. The findings reveal that although G2 individuals have better occupational returns to education than the G1, they still face higher probabilities of overqualification than the majority population. These patterns are especially pronounced among those with non-Western backgrounds and tertiary degrees.

Study Ⅱ investigates whether overqualification serves as a catalyst for career progression among the G2. By employing dynamic correlated random-effects multinomial logistic models, the study estimates the probabilities of transitioning between multiple labor market states—adequately matched employment, overqualification, and unemployment. The results indicate that for no group does overqualification act as a stepping stone toward better employment compared to remaining in unemployment. In fact, for G2 individuals with non-Western origins, overqualification leads to higher unemployment risks compared to the majority population, suggesting that overqualification may lead to a vicious cycle of labor market disadvantages.

Study Ⅲ examines the impact of overqualification on earnings levels and annual earnings growth among the G2 compared to the majority population. The study uses growth curve models to estimate differences in initial earnings at labor market entry and subsequent annual earnings growth by qualification mismatch status and ancestral origin. The findings reveal a counteracting relationship between overqualification and earnings. Overqualification contributes to larger earnings penalties at labor market entry between the G2 and the majority population, but it is also associated with accelerated earnings growth over time. Despite accelerated growth associated with overqualification, the initial earnings gap persists in the short term, partially challenging the predictions of career mobility theory.

Study Ⅳ investigates the association between unemployment, overqualification, and mental health among the G2 compared to the majority population. Employing Cox proportional hazards models, the study assesses the risk of first-time psychotropic medication prescriptions as an indicator of mental health problems, considering individuals’ origin and labor market status. The findings confirm that both unemployment and overqualification are associated with poorer mental health outcomes. Notably, mental health disparities between the G2 and the majority population are apparent only among the employed, suggesting that improving the labor market positions of the G2 may not necessarily reduce mental health inequalities.

Overall, this dissertation sheds light on an often-neglected dimension of the socioeconomic integration of the second-generation children of immigrants. It demonstrates that overqualification contributes to negative socioeconomic and health outcomes for G2 individuals despite their high levels of human capital. The findings underscore the need for policy measures aimed at improving employment quality, specifically by ensuring better alignment between educational qualifications and occupations, particularly for the G2.

Research on the children of immigrants born in the host country (G2) consistently reveals disparities between their educational achievements and labour market outcomes compared to the majority population. This study provides new insights into understanding this disparity by examining patterns of overqualification—i.e., a downward educational mismatch—among the G2. Specifically, it explores 1) how overqualification patterns differ between the G2, foreign-born immigrants (G1), and the majority population and 2) how overqualification patterns vary across ten G2 ancestry groups compared to the majority population. Utilizing Swedish total population register data and linear probability models, this study estimates the probability of overqualification across different immigrant generations and ancestry groups, employing the Realised Matches method to measure overqualification. The results indicate that while G2 individuals have a lower probability of experiencing overqualification compared to G1, they face moderately higher probabilities of overqualification than the majority population—up to 19% higher. This disparity is particularly pronounced among G2 individuals with tertiary education and those of Iranian, Middle Eastern and North African, and Other Non-Western origins, with up to 39% higher probabilities. These findings suggest that G2 individuals, particularly those of non-Western origins, encounter significant challenges in translating their educational qualifications into commensurate employment within the Swedish labour market.