Using the substitution of fluorinated gases employed as foam blowing agents in insulation materials as a case study, we aim to apply and adapt a well-established multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) method for chemical alternatives assessment, the multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT) approach, to evaluate and compare non-chemical alternatives based on technical performance and environmental impact attributes. The functional substitution approach was followed to define the functions delivered by fluorinated gases in insulation materials, and the ZeroPM alternatives database was used to identify functional alternatives. Data on environmental impacts along the life cycle, and the technical performance of the identified alternatives were collected based on previous literature reviews on insulation materials. The MAUT approach was used to compare the different alternatives. Four decision-making scenarios were defined in order to illustrate the flexibility of the MAUT method for the assessment of functional alternatives. Overall, 32 alternative materials to polyethene foams (also known as polyethylene foams) and extruded polystyrene foams containing fluorinated gases were identified. 9 insulation materials were shortlisted for further evaluation based on the amount of data available. Overall, alternatives ranked better than polyethene foams and extruded polystyrene foams in every decision-making scenario tested in this study, suggesting that suitable and safer alternatives to fluorinated gases used in insulation foams can be identified. This work highlights how the choices made by the decision-maker to develop a MAUT model influence the final ranking of the alternatives being evaluated. This might be highly relevant in a regulatory context as the availability of suitable alternatives is a critical part in the decision-making on bans of harmful substances. Although promising in the field of alternatives assessment in a regulatory context, further work is needed to develop appropriate guidance for using MAUT methods to identify suitable alternatives to substances of concern.

An ambitious EU-ban on PFAS will be an important step toward a cleaner and safer EU, and is likely to have an impact on the use of PFAS worldwide. To be truly effective, it’s important that derogations from the ban are limited in time and scope and provided only to uses where there are no viable alternatives. As PFAS will contaminate the environment for decades, it’s important to provide funding and support for research and development of safer alternatives and technologies to remediate PFAS from contaminated water and soil.

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

• Only allow time-limited derogations for PFAS uses where no viable alternatives exist and only to uses essential to health, safety, or the functioning of society. Derogations should be clearly defined and only allow sufficient time to transition to safer alternatives.

• Don’t grant time-unlimited derogations, such as for manufacturing of PFAS, since emission controls can never fully prevent PFAS from entering the environment and posing risks to human health. Also, exported PFAS, being highly persistent and mobile, will return via atmosphere and oceans and in imported products and articles.

• Provide continued funding and support for research and development of safer alternatives and technologies to remediate PFAS from contaminated water and soil.

The planetary-scale risks posed by “chemicals of global concern” have deep historical roots that predate the literature on the Planetary Boundaries concept. Two largely separate scientific and regulatory tracks emerged from mid-20th-century research: an atmospheric track (exemplified by chlorofluorocarbons and stratospheric ozone depletion) and an aquatic-terrestrial/ecotoxicological track (exemplified by DDT, PCBs and other bioaccumulative organohalogens). Both tracks produced early warnings, scientific consensus, and eventual multilateral environmental agreements (the Montreal Protocol and Stockholm Convention). In this Perspective, we synthesize the historical evidence, link it to the planetary-boundaries and limits-to-growth narratives, highlight why chemical regulation repeatedly failed to prevent widespread contamination, and propose a set of pragmatic policy instruments, including targeted premarket controls such as the application of the Safe and Sustainable by Design framework, class-based phase-outs to speed up the removal of hazardous substances from the market, and global burden sharing to better manage planetary-scale chemical problems.

Ett heltäckande EU-förbud mot PFAS skulle vara ett viktigt steg mot ett renare och säkrare Europa och sannolikt påverka användningen av PFAS över hela världen. För att förbudet ska bli verkligt effektivt är det därför viktigt att undantag är begränsade i tid och omfattning och endast beviljas för användningsområden där det inte finns några säkra alternativ.

REKOMMENDATIONER

• Tillåt endast tidsbegränsade undantag för användning av PFAS där det inte finns några tillgängliga alternativ och endast för användning som är nödvändig för hälsa, säkerhet eller samhällets funktion. Undantagen bör vara tydligt definierade och inte längre än vad som krävs för att utveckla och implementera säkra alternativ.

• Bevilja inte undantag helt utan tidsbegränsningar, till exempel för tillverkning av PFAS. Utsläppskontroll kommer aldrig helt lyckas förhindra att PFAS hamnar i miljön och så småningom i människokroppen, och PFAS som exporteras kommer förr eller senare att återvända till Europa via luft och vatten.

• Säkerställ fortsatt finansiering och stöd till forskning och utveckling av säkrare alternativ och till tekniker för att sanera PFAS från förorenat vatten och mark.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are common contaminants of drinking water globally. Due to their large number and diversity, extractable organofluorine (EOF) has been employed as a sum parameter measurement to capture known and unknown PFAS in environmental samples. However, current methods for determining drinking water EOF perform poorly for trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and provide limited insights into the nature of unidentified fluorine occurring in samples. To address this, we developed and validated a solid-phase extraction procedure for EOF determination in drinking water with improved TFA recovery, which removes and/or accounts for different species of inorganic fluorine. The method produces two fractions: one containing mostly polar fluorinated substances (e.g., TFA, tetrafluoroborate, and trifluoromethanesulfonate) and another containing longer-chain PFAS. Hexafluorophosphate was distributed across both fractions. Application of the method to Stockholm drinking water revealed a closed fluorine mass balance in fraction I, predominantly (93%) consisting of TFA. In fraction II, however, 67% of the fluorine was unidentified, pointing to unknown fluorinated substance(s) with similar physical-chemical properties to PFAS in this fraction (e.g., perfluorooctanesulfonate). In addition to providing clues for identifying EOF, the method improves estimation of “PFAS Total” for comparison to limits under the European Drinking Water Directive.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used in a wide range of different industrial and consumer applications. However, due to their extreme environmental persistence and their impacts on human and ecosystem health, PFAS have been subject to many regulatory activities, including initiatives to incentivize industry to transition toward PFAS-free alternatives. Although efforts have been made to map all uses of PFAS, work is still needed to provide an overview of their potential alternatives. Based on the functional substitution approach, this study develops an online database that documents all known uses of PFAS, describes the functions provided by PFAS in these uses, lists potential alternatives that can deliver equivalent or similar functions to PFAS, and evaluates the suitability of the identified alternatives to replace PFAS. Overall, the database lists 325 different applications of PFAS across 18 use categories. In total, 530 PFAS-free alternatives are identified. Based on a screening of potential concerns of the identified alternatives, their performance compared to PFAS, and their availability on the market, it is concluded that potentially suitable alternatives to PFAS are available for 40 different applications. For 83 applications, no alternatives could be identified at the time of the study and should be the focus of further research activities.

Increased awareness of pervasive per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contamination and the need for zero-pollution treatment solutions necessitate the scientific and engineering community to respond urgently and systematically. Existing approaches lack reproducible and standardized methods to report the technological treatment capabilities. Consequently, it is difficult to compare innovations and accurately assess their potential. In this Perspective, we shed light on hurdles encountered in the lab-scale research and development of aqueous PFAS destruction technologies with a focus on chemical methods and offer recommendations for overcoming them. Best practices are provided for developing robust PFAS laboratory protocols covering crucial aspects such as experimental planning, sample storage and analysis, and waste management. Further, we present five criteria to standardize reporting on performance and advances in PFAS degrading technologies: 1) scope, 2) defluorination efficiency, 3) relative energy consumption, 4) material stability, and 5) unit process considerations. Through the dissemination of these insights, we aim to foster progress in the development of highly effective treatment solutions.

The Stockholm Convention and the EU REACH Regulation are two key pieces of legislation on chemicals at the global and European levels, respectively. Discussions have taken place on revising them. For instance, the European Commission is considering implementing the “essential-use” concept in the REACH Regulation to guide decision-making for phasing-out the use of the most harmful chemicals. By assessing 34 existing cases under the Stockholm Convention and 45 restrictions and 544 applications for authorization under the REACH regulation (as of November 2023), this study aims to capture how the essential-use concept may inform decision-making on exemptions and provide insights on its implementation. By conducting a detailed case study of the REACH restriction on intentionally added microplastics, this study also aims to explore how the existing data requirements in regulatory processes could be used in an essentiality assessment. Overall, this study suggests that the Stockholm Convention and the REACH Regulation already consider elements of the concept in their decision-making and that no drastic changes in the data requirements are necessary to apply the concept in decision-making processes.

This study investigated the particle size distribution and atmospheric transport potential of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and certain perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids (PFECAs) emitted from a mega fluoropolymer industrial park (FIP) in China. Ambient aerosols sampled in a residential area near the FIP were separated by a cascade impactor into five size fractions (<0.15 to 12.15 μm). Homologues of PFCAs (C5-C11) and five PFECAs were frequently detected in the samples (detection frequencies 40-100%), albeit not in all size fractions. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) exhibited the highest concentrations (6.5 to 2900 pg m-3). A noticeable mass mode in the >1 μm size range was observed for PFCAs and PFECAs in the samples that were directly influenced by wind from the direction of the FIP. Based on the PFOA concentrations in the aerosol samples, the emission rate of PFOA to air from the FIP was estimated to be 0.4-1.3 t year-1. Modeling results demonstrated that around 67% of the PFOA air emission was transported in the atmosphere above 1500 m in a 7 day continuous emission scenario, implying that the PFOA on <12.15 μm particles undergoes long-range atmospheric transport after being emitted from the FIP.

Emissions of historical fluorinated processing aids used in fluoropolymer production are known to have contributed significantly to environmental levels of persistent perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). Less is known about emissions of contemporary processing aids and the efficacy of technology used to contain them. To address this, we investigated the occurrence of hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) and other per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in airborne PM10 near a fluoropolymer production plant in the Netherlands. The 20-week high-volume air sampling campaign coincided with installation of emission abatement systems. HFPO-DA levels ranged from below detection limits to 98.66 pg m-3 when the wind came from the plant, and decreased to a maximum of 12.21 pg m-3 postabatement. Lagrangian dispersion modeling using FLEXPART revealed good concordance between measured and modeled HFPO-DA concentrations (Pearson’s r = 0.83, p ≤ 0.05, Wilmott’s d = 0.71, mean absolute error = 3.66 pg m-3), providing further evidence that the plant is a point source. Modeling also suggested that HFPO-DA could undergo long-range atmospheric transport with detectable HFPO-DA air concentrations predicted up to several thousand kilometers away. Besides HFPO-DA, the fluorinated processing aid 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate and the suspected polymerization byproducts, hydrogen-substituted perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids, were also observed, highlighting the complex mixture of PFAS emitted by the plant.