Food is at the core of cultural identity, fundamental for survival, yet intrinsically linked to culture. To study activities related to food is, therefore, in effect a way to study cultural practices and cultural differences. This chapter approaches Mesolithic food and diet through the concept of châine opératoire, which is a valuable tool to move beyond simple facts on what foodstuffs were eaten, or what resources were utilized, and instead consider the full spectrum of food practices during the Mesolithic. It is a structured way to describe the mental processes and actions involved in transforming environmental resources into foods, their consumption, and subsequent disposal. These activities require extensive knowledge, technology, and skills, all of which are culturally transmitted. Therefore, they are not only of great archaeological relevance, but they also potentially leave traces in the archaeological record, which can be studied by various approaches. Through a survey of the literature, this chapter provides examples of various Mesolithic food practices throughout Europe, and how these can be detected and interpreted. In addition, it presents a case study of the diverse Mesolithic diets in the Circum-Baltic area as evidenced by stable isotope analysis.

Two major debates frame Arctic prehistory: the emergence of specialized maritime economies that support sedentism and growing socio-political complexity, and the role of these economies in the transition from Paleo-Inuit to Neo-Inuit traditions. This shift, originating in the Bering Strait, led to Thule Inuit dispersal across the Arctic, impacting Indigenous communities today. However, understanding these themes is still hampered by the challenges of building accurate site-based and regional-scale radiocarbon chronologies, influenced by driftwood use and marine reservoir effects. This paper presents a new high-resolution chronology for the key Ekven mortuary complex, located on the western shores of the Bering Strait, a site that defines the Old Bering Sea (OBS) phase, marking the earliest onset of the Neo-Inuit tradition. It is based on new direct radiocarbon dates of ancestral human remains and Bayesian modelling using OxCal, which considers available stratigraphic information, individual diets, previously dated faunal remains, and appropriate and species-specific ΔR values to account for marine reservoir effects. Our results suggest that the OBS emerged in this region at around 500 CE, which is later than some models predict, and indicate that the mortuary complex was used intensively until c. 1000 CE, after which few individuals were buried. The revised chronology also creates new opportunities to better integrate diverse cultural and palaeoecological proxies from across the Bering Strait, potentially clarifying the precise role of climatic and environmental factors at a key cultural juncture in Arctic prehistory.

The function of European Stone Age forager sites with several burials has been debated for decades. One little-known site of this kind is the 4th–3rd millennium cal BC Tamula I (hereinafter Tamula) in south-eastern Estonia. Bringing together the results of archaeological and archaeothanatological analyses and departing from stable isotope based dietary reconstructions together with the idea of ‘you are what you eat’ as a basis for forming a group identity, we discuss the function of Stone Age forager sites with more than one interment.  Should these be considered cemeteries, meeting places or ordinary settlements? Bulk stable carbon (δ¹³C) and nitrogen isotope (δ¹⁵N) analysis of human skeletal remains from Tamula and a spatio-temporally close multiple burial at Veibri (5th millennium cal BC) demonstrate a significant consumption of freshwater resources. However, the stable isotope values from these two sites differ significantly, allowing a clear distinction between the two populations. Regarding these values not merely as a reflection of peoples’ dietary preferences, but also as a reflection of their primary identities and an indication of local ecologies, we argue that the stable isotope data together with the fact that the late foragers were sedentary provides additional insights into the discussion on the structure of buried populations. These new isotope data together with archaeological records from Tamula, Veibri and the Stone Age complex Zvejnieki in Latvia suggest that at least three different types of burial places existed among the hunter-gatherer communities in the eastern Baltic region during the Stone Age. In the future, these preliminary results about the people forming a burial community could be further consolidated by the establishment of local baseline information and the application of stable isotope analysis of single amino acids.

Analyzing the delta H-2 values in individual amino acids of proteins extracted from vertebrates, we unexpectedly found in some samples, notably bone collagen from seals, more than twice as much deuterium in proline and hydroxyproline residues than in seawater. This corresponds to at least 4 times higher delta H-2 than in any previously reported biogenic sample. We ruled out diet as a plausible mechanism for such anomalous enrichment. This finding puts into question the old adage that you are what you eat.

Vivallen is a Late Iron Age/Early Middle Ages South Saami site with a burial ground as well as a large dwelling site in Härjedalen, Sweden, located in the borderland between Saami and Norse groups. As food can be used as an indicator of cultural affiliation, we investigated the relative importance of various foodstuffs at this site, performing δ13C and δ15N analysis of human and faunal skeletal remains. The site was located along the St Olaf pilgrimage route, implying that some of the buried individuals may not have been local to the site, and therefore we performed δ34S analysis to study mobility. We set out to investigate if there were any changes in diet and mobility over the lifespan of the people buried at Vivallen. The results showed that freshwater fish were an important part of the diet, whereas reindeer and big game do not seem to have been major protein sources. We could not identify any substantial changes in diet in the individuals over time. Our results further demonstrated low mobility among the individuals, with one exception, a female who evidently grew up somewhere else.

Due to the marine reservoir effect, radiocarbon dates of marine samples require a correction. Marine reservoir effects, however, may vary among different marine species within a given body of water. Factors such as diet, feeding depth and migratory behaviour all affect the ¹⁴C date of a marine organism. Moreover, there is often significant variation within single marine species. Whilst the careful consideration of the ΔR values of a single marine species in a given location is important, so too is the full range of ΔR values within an ecosystem. This paper illustrates this point, using a sample pairing method to estimate the reservoir effects in 17 marine samples, of eight different species, from the archaeological site of Ekven (Eastern Chukotka, Siberia). An OxCal model is used to assess the strength of these estimates. The marine reservoir effects of samples passing the model range from ΔR (Marine20) = 136 ± 41–ΔR = 460 ± 40. Marine reservoir effect estimates of these samples and other published samples are used to explore variability in the wider Bering Strait region. The archaeological implications of this variability are also discussed. The calibrating of ¹⁴C dates from human bone collagen, for example, could be improved by applying a dietary relevant marine reservoir effect correction. For humans from the site of Ekven, a ΔR (Marine20) correction of 289 ± 124 years or reservoir age correction of 842 ± 123 years is suggested. 

Marine reservoir effects (MRE) have the potential to increase the dating uncertainty of humans incorporating marine resources into their diets. Here we attempt a novel dental wiggle-match model to reduce dating uncertainty of seven individuals from the Resmo megalithic tomb (Öland, Sweden) and to test whether this model can be used to calculate MRE from a single tooth. Previous stable isotope ratio studies of these individuals demonstrated that their diets changed, between more or less marine protein, during the early years of their lives. Several incremental samples of dentine from each individual were subjected to radiocarbon dating and stable isotope ratio analysis. An OxCal model was designed that makes use of the known formation sequence of human teeth to reduce overall dating uncertainty. The new dental wiggle-match model is able to reduce overall dating uncertainty in all of the sampled individuals compared to more conventional 14C calibration methods. A utility of the dental wiggle model to estimate marine reservoir effects without associated faunal material is also demonstrated, with promising results.

Established in 1635, the silver mine of Nasafjall and the smeltery site in Silbojokk in Swedish Sapmi were used during several phases until the late 19th century. Excavations in Silbojokk, c. 40 km from Nasafjall, have revealed buildings such as a smeltery, living houses, a bakery, and a church with a churchyard. From the beginning, both local and non-local individuals worked at the mine and the smeltery. Non-locals were recruited to work in the mine and at the smeltery, and the local Semi population was recruited to transport the silver down to the Swedish coast. Females, males, and children of different ages were represented among the individuals buried at the churchyard in Silbojokk, which was used between c. 1635 and 1770. Here we study diet, mobility, and exposure to lead (Pb) in the smeltery workers, the miners, and the local population. By employing isotopic analysis, delta C-13, delta N-15, delta S-34, Sr-87/Sr-86 and elemental analysis, we demonstrate that individuals in Silbojokk had a homogenous diet, except for two individuals. In addition, both local and non-local individuals were all exposed to Pb, which in some cases could have been harmful to their health.