A well-studied heterogeneous palladium(II) catalyst used for the cycloisomerization of acetylenic acids is known to be susceptible to deactivation through reduction. To gain a deeper understanding of this deactivation process and to enable the design of a reactivation strategy, in situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used. With this technique, changes in the palladium oxidation state and coordination environment could be studied in close detail, which provided experimental evidence that the deactivation was primarily caused by triethylamine-promoted reduction of palladium(II) to metallic palladium nanoparticles. Furthermore, it was observed that the choice of the acetylenic acid substrate influenced the distribution between palladium(II) and palladium(0) species in the heterogeneous catalyst after the reaction. From the mechanistic insight gained through XAS, an improved catalytic protocol was developed that did not suffer from deactivation and allowed for more efficient recycling of the catalyst.

A highly selective and efficient oxidative carbocyclization/borylation of enallenols catalyzed by palladium immobilized on amino-functionalized siliceous mesocellular foam (Pd-AmP-MCF) was developed for diastereoselective cyclobutenol synthesis. The heterogeneous palladium catalyst can be recovered and recycled without any observed loss of activity or selectivity. The high diastereoselectivity of the reaction is proposed to originate from a directing effect of the enallenol hydroxyl group. Optically pure cyclobutenol synthesis was achieved by the heterogeneous strategy by using chiral enallenol obtained from kinetic resolution.

Herein, we report the synthesis of 2,3-dihydropyrroles via an iron-catalyzed intramolecular nucleophilic cyclization of alpha-allenic sulfonamides. A highly diastereoselective variant of the reaction was also developed with the use of 1,2-disubstituted allenamides, which afforded 2,3-dihydropyrroles with diastereomeric ratios of >98:2. Insight into the mechanism was gained through a detailed DFT study, which elucidates the reaction mechanism and rationalizes the high chemoselectivity and diastereoselectivity.

The cause and mechanism of deactivation of a well-studied heterogeneous palladium(II) catalyst in the intramolecular lactonization of acetylenic acids to γ-alkylidene lactones have been investigated. It was shown that the deactivation was driven by the formation of reduced palladium species following the addition of the base triethylamine. In this work, X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used to identify the palladium species and follow their evolution over the course of the reaction. It was also found that the choice of substrates has significant influences on the Pd species under the same reaction conditions. With these insights into the deactivation mechanism derived from XAS, different strategies were tested and illustrated to regain or maintain the active state of the catalyst. This information was further used to develop a new protocol, which can effectively prevent the deactivation of the catalyst and prolong its usage. 

A palladium-catalyzed oxidative tandem process of enallenols was accomplished within a homogeneous/heterogeneous catalysis manifold, setting the stage for the highly chemodivergent and diaster-eoselective synthesis of gamma-lactones and gamma-lactams under mild conditions.

Herein, we report a highly efficient iron-catalyzed intramolecular nucleophilic cyclization of alpha-allenols to furnish substituted 2,3-dihydrofurans under mild reaction conditions. A highly diastereoselective variant of the reaction was developed as well, giving diastereomeric ratios of up to 98:2. The combination of the iron-catalyzed cycloisomerization with enzymatic resolution afforded the 2,3-dihydrofuran in high ee. A detailed DFT study provides insight into the reaction mechanism and gives a rationalization for the high chemo-and diastereoselectivity.

The main focus of this thesis lies in the development of new transition metal-catalyzed chemoenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolutions (DKR) of both alcohols and amines. The first part of the thesis deals with the development of new heterogeneous systems for the DKR of amines. The racemization catalysts in these different systems are all composed of palladium nanoparticles supported on either mesoporous silica or incorporated in a biocomposite that is composed of a bioactive cross-linked enzyme aggregate. 

The second part of the thesis deals with the development of a homogeneous iron catalyst in the racemization of sec-alcohols for the implementation in a chemoenzymatic DKR. Two protocols for the racemization of sec-alcohols are reported. The first one could not be combined with a chemoenzymatic kinetic resolution, although this was overcome in the second iron based protocol. 

Following the successful iron catalyzed chemoenzymatic DKR of sec-alcohols, the iron catalyst was used in the cyclization of α-allenic alcohols and N-protected amines to furnish 2,3-dihydrofurans and 2,3-dihydropyrroles, respectively. The cyclization is proceeding in a diastereoselective manner.

The last part of the thesis deals with attempts to further elucidate the mechanism of activation of a known ruthenium racemization catalyst. X-ray absorption spectroscopy using synchrotron radiation was used for this purpose.

Herein, we report on a metalloenzymatic dynamic kinetic resolution of sec-alcohols employing an iron-based racemization catalyst together with a lipase. The iron catalyst was evaluated in racemization and then used in dynamic kinetic resolution of a number of sec-alcohols to give enantiomerically pure products in good to high yields. The iron catalyst is air and moisture stable and is readily accessible.

Herein, a design of a biohybrid catalyst is described, consisting of Pd nanoparticles and a cross-linked network of aggregated lipase B enzyme of Candida antarctica (CalB CLEA) functioning as an active support for the Pd nanoparticles. Both entities of the hybrid catalyst showed good catalytic activity. The applicability was demonstrated in a one-pot reaction, where the Pd-catalyzed cycloisomerization of 4-pentynoic acid afforded a lactone that serves as an acyl donor in a subsequent selective enzymatic kinetic resolution of a set of sec-alcohols. The catalyst proved to be robust and could be recycled five times without a significant loss of activity.

Herein, we report on the utilization of a heterogeneous catalyst, consisting of Pd nanoparticles supported on a siliceous mesocellular foam (Pd-0-AmP-MCF), for the synthesis of heterocycles. Reaction of o-iodophenols and protected o-iodoanilines with acetylenes in the presence of a Pd nanocatalyst produced 2-substituted benzofurans and indoles, respectively. In general, the catalytic protocol afforded the desired products in good to excellent yields under mild reaction conditions without the addition of ligands. Moreover, the structure of the reported Pd nanocatalyst was further elucidated with extended X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy, and it was proven that the catalyst could be recycled multiple times without significant loss of activity.