The Samail Ophiolite in the Oman Mountains formed at a Cretaceous subduction zone that was part of a wider Neo-Tethys plate-boundary system. The original configuration and evolution of this plate-boundary system is hidden in a structurally and metamorphically complex nappe stack below the Samail Ophiolite. Previous work provided evidence for high-temperature metamorphism high in the nappe pile (in the metamorphic sole of the Samail Ophiolite), and high-pressure metamorphism in the deepest part of the nappe pile (Saih Hatat window), possibly reflecting a downward younging, progressive accretion history at the Samail subduction zone. However, there is evidence that the two subduction-related metamorphic events are disparate, but temporally overlapping during the mid-Cretaceous. We present the first geochronologic dataset across the entire high-pressure nappe stack below the Samail Ophiolite, and the shear zones between the high-pressure nappes. Our 22 new Rb-Sr multimineral isochron ages from the Saih Hatat window, along with independent new field mapping and kinematic reconstructions, constrain the timing and geometry of tectonometamorphic events. Our work indicates the existence of a highpressure metamorphic event in the nappes below the ophiolite that was synchronous with the hightemperature conditions in the metamorphic sole. We argue that the thermal conditions of these synchronous metamorphic events can only be explained through the existence of two Cretaceous subduction zones/segments that underwent distinctly different thermal histories during subduction infancy. We infer that these two subduction zones initially formed at two perpendicular subduction segments at the Arabian margin and subsequently rotated relative to each other and, as a consequence, their records became juxtaposed: (1) The hightemperature metamorphic sole and the Samail Ophiolite both formed above the structurally higher, outboard, 'hot' and rotating Samail subduction zone and, (2) the high-pressure nappes developed within the structurally lower, inboard, 'cold' Ruwi subduction zone. We conclude that the formation and evolution of both subduction zones were likely controlled by the density structure of the mafic-rock-rich Arabian rifted margin and outermost Arabian Platform, and the subsequent arrival of the buoyant, largely mafic-rock-free, full-thickness Arabian lithosphere, which eventually halted subduction at the southern margin of Neo-Tethys.

Most tectonic models consider that the “Samail subduction zone” was the only subduction zone at the mid-Cretaceous convergent Arabian margin. We report four new Rb-Sr multimineral isochron ages from high-pressure (HP) rocks and a major shear zone of the uppermost Ruwi-Yiti Unit of the Saih Hatat window in the Oman Mountains of NE Arabia. These ages demand a reassessment of the intraoceanic suprasubduction-zone evolution that formed the Samail Ophiolite and its metamorphic sole in the Samail subduction zone. Our new ages constrain waning HP metamorphism of the Ruwi subunit at ∼99-96 Ma and associated deformation in the Yenkit shear zone between ∼104 and 93 Ma. Our ages for late stages of deformation and HP metamorphism (thermal gradients of ∼8–10°C km⁻¹) overlap with published ages of ∼105-102 Ma for Samail-subduction-zone prograde-to-peak metamorphism (thermal gradients of ∼20–25°C km⁻¹), subsequent decompressional partial melting of the metamorphic sole and suprasubduction-zone crystallization of the Samail Ophiolite (thermal gradients of ∼30°C km⁻¹) between ∼100 and 93 Ma. Thermal considerations demand that two subduction zones existed at the mid-Cretaceous Arabian margin. High-pressure metamorphism of the Ruwi-Yiti rocks occurred in a mature, thermally equilibrated “Ruwi subduction zone” that formed at ∼110 Ma. Initiation of the infant, thermally unequilibrated and, thus, immature, outboard intraoceanic Samail subduction zone occurred at ∼105 Ma. The Samail Ophiolite and its metamorphic sole were then thrust over the exhuming Ruwi-Yiti HP rocks and onto the Arabian margin after ∼92 Ma, while the bulk of the Saih Hatat HP rocks below the Ruwi-Yiti Unit started to be underthrust in the Ruwi subduction zone.

The Saih Hatat Dome in the Al Hajar Mountains provides an outstanding opportunity to study subduction/exhumation processes coeval with obduction of the Semail Ophiolite. The exceptionally good outcrop conditions offer a unique opportunity to constrain the geometry of this subduction/obduction complex. In this review, the metamorphic, structural, and tectonic evolution of the Oman high-pressure complex in the Saih Hatat Dome is discussed. New structural cross-sections are developed and are used to interpret a geometrically feasible tectonic model for the Saih Hatat Dome. Our review highlights the importance of two major tectonic boundaries: (1) The As Sheik Shear Zone which separates the high pressure rocks of the As Sifah Unit (1.7–2.3 GPa and 510–550 °C) from the overlying Hulw Unit (1.0–1.2 GPa and 250–300 °C), and was active at ~79–76 Ma; and (2) the Upper Plate–Lower Plate Discontinuity, which forms a major surface in the landscape and developed by ~76–74 Ma, cutting through structures of the HP rocks in the lower plate (footwall). This discontinuity is associated with a pronounced strain gradient, notably in its upper plate (hanging wall), and separates rocks that have markedly different deformation geometry. The Upper Plate–Lower Plate Discontinuity initiated with a modest dip angle, making it a neutral structure in terms of crustal shortening vs extension. As a result, there is no discernable break in P-T conditions across it. The upper plate is dominated by the Saih Hatat Fold Nappe, forming between ~76 and 70 Ma. Subsequently, the upper plate has been dissected by a number of NNE-dipping thrusts at ~70–66 Ma, followed by normal faults at <~66 Ma. Our review and tectonic model indicate that the Oman high-pressure rocks were exhumed in a contractional tectonic setting that was possibly driven by forced return flow assisted by buoyancy forces. During this exhumation, when the rocks reached the greenschist-facies middle crust the Upper Plate–Lower Plate Discontinuity formed, as a shallow, south-dipping backthrust. Final exhumation of the high-P rocks was achieved by late normal faults after ~66 Ma.

We reconstruct the three-dimensional (3D) geometry of the Naxos detachment fault and quantify E-W shortening associated with strong N-S extensional deformation. In addition, 3D reconstruction of the detachment indicates how it interacted with the underlying metamorphic sequence, as well as a set of concentric metamorphic isograds that formed during extensional deformation. For doing so, we used the software MOVE (TM) (Midland Valley Ltd.) to develop a 3D model of the Naxos metamorphic core complex (NCC) and the Naxos detachment fault. The model is constrained by structural data, metamorphic isograds, and fission-track ages from the footwall of the NCC. Our analysis shows that greater minimum amounts of E-W shortening correlate with higher metamorphic grade, ranging from 6 to 10% outside the migmatite dome and up to 17% within the migmatite dome. The metamorphic isograds around the migmatite dome are less intensely folded by E-W shortening than the lithologic layering. We conclude that this is because the isograd surfaces froze-in after folding had already started. Our model indicates that the isograds are cut by the brittle detachment, demonstrating that the final stages of top-to-the-NNE extension outlasted the formation of the metamorphic dome and the isograds. Despite some limitations of the 3D model, the outlined geometric reconstruction of a major extensional fault system in the central Aegean highlights: (1) the interplay between large-scale extension and temperature-dependant shortening perpendicular to the extension direction, (2) the evolution of metamorphism and migmatization, (3) the formation of metamorphic isograds, and (4) granitoid intrusions during extension and exhumation.

Geological field mapping is a vital first step in understanding geological processes. During the 20th century, mapping was revolutionized through advances in remote sensing technology. With the recent availability of low-cost remotely piloted aircraft (RPA), field geologists now routinely carry out aerial imaging without the need to use satellite, helicopter, or airplane systems. RPA photographs are processed by photo-based three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction software, which uses structure-from-motion and multi-view stereo algorithms to create an ultra-high-resolution, 3-D point cloud of a region or target outcrop. These point clouds are analyzed to extract the orientation of geological structures and strata, and are also used to create digital elevation models and photorealistic 3-D models. However, this technique has only recently been used for structural mapping. Here, we outline a workflow starting with RPA data acquisition, followed by photo-based 3-D reconstruction, and ending with a 3-D geological model. The Jabal Hafit anticline in the United Arab Emirates was selected to demonstrate this workflow. At this anticline, outcrop exposure is excellent and the terrain is challenging to navigate due to areas of high relief. This makes for an ideal RPA mapping site and provides a good indication of how practical this method may be for the field geologist. Results confirm that RPA photo-based 3-D reconstruction mapping is an accurate and cost-efficient remote sensing method for geological mapping.

Direct dating of brittle structures is challenging, especially absolute dating of diagenesis followed by a series of superimposed brittle deformation events. We report 22 calcite U-Pb ages from tectonites and carbonate host rocks that date 3 diagenetic and 6 brittle deformation events. Results show that U-Pb dating of calcite fibers from these structures is compatible with overprinting relationships. Ages indicate that diagenesis occurred between 147 +/- 6 Ma and 103 +/- 34 Ma, and was followed by top-to-the-south, layer-parallel shearing due to ophiolite obduction at 84 +/- 5 Ma (2 sigma errors). Sheared top-to-the- northeast, layer-parallel veins were dated as 64 +/- 4 Ma and are interpreted to have developed during postobduction exhumation. After this event, a series of strike-slip structures, which crosscut and reactivated older faults due to northwest-southeast horizontal shortening, were dated as 55 +/- 22 Ma and 43 +/- 6 Ma. Eight ages from strike-slip faults and thrusts resulting from northeast-southwest shortening range from 40.6 +/- 0.5 Ma to 16.1 +/- 0.2 Ma. The youngest ages are from minor overprinting fibers ranging in age between 7.5 +/- 0.9 Ma and 1.6 +/- 0.6 Ma. Our results show that U-Pb dating of calcite fibers can be successfully used to constrain a complicated succession of brittle deformation structures that encompasses two orogenies and an intervening extension period.

Mountains evolve and grow because of the large forces that occur from the collision of tectonic plates. Plate boundaries change and move through time, and regions that were once stable, shallow-marine environments can be dragged into subduction zones and get transformed into vast mountain ranges. The Al Hajar Mountains in Oman consist of carbonate rocks which show that during most of the Mesozoic (c. 268 Ma – 95 Ma) they had not yet formed but were flat and below sea level. Following this, in the Late Cretaceous (c. 95 Ma), a major tectonic event caused oceanic crust to be obducted onto this Mesozoic carbonate platform. Then after obduction a shallow marine environment resumed, and Paleogene sedimentary rocks were deposited. Currently, the central mountains are located on the Arabian Plate and are 200 km away from the convergent plate boundary with Eurasia. Here, Arabia is being subducted. Further towards the northwest Arabia and Eurasia are colliding, forming the Zagros Mountains which initiated no earlier than the Oligocene (c. 30 Ma). At this time the mountains were even further away from the plate boundary. The problem with the Al Hajar Mountains is that they record a collision, but are not in a collisional zone. To better understand the formation of the Al Hajar Mountains, a multidiscipline approach was used to investigate the timing at which they developed. This included applying low-temperature thermochronology, U-Pb dating of brittle structures, and balanced cross-sections. Results indicate that the orogeny began in the late Eocene and had concluded by the early Miocene (40 Ma – 15 Ma). Therefore, the uplift of the Al Hajar Mountains is not related to either the older Late Cretaceous ophiolite obduction or the younger Zagros collision, and a new tectonic model is proposed. This research shows that the Cenozoic tectonic history of northern Oman is more cryptic than what has been formerly presented.

Creating three-dimensional (3D) models to replicate geological structures is crucial in discerning the geometry and kinematics of an orogen. The Jabal Hafit anticline, in the foreland of the Al Hajar Mountains, extends through Oman and the United Arab Emirates and is a relatively simple and well exposed structure. Surprisingly, previous studies of this anticline have presented conflicting interpretations regarding the strain field and the timing of deformation. In this study a structural 3D geological model of the Jabal Hafit anticline is constructed and demonstrates that the anticlines geometry can be reproduced by a two-phase model: (1) flexural slip folding, followed by (2) trishear fault-propagation folding. The trishear mode occurred due to a west-dipping backthrust that propagated from the decollement, to accommodate WSW-directed shortening. The different geometries of the various biostratigraphic layers indicate that anticline growth occurred during the late Oligocene to early -middle Miocene. This timing supports the recently established age for uplift of the Al Hajar Mountains.

Uplift of the Al Hajar Mountains in Oman has been related to either Late Cretaceous ophiolite obduction or the Neogene Zagros collision. To test these hypotheses, the cooling of the central Al Hajar Mountains is constrained by 10 apatite (U-Th)/He (AHe), 15 fission track (AFT), and four zircon (U-Th)/He (ZHe) sample ages. These data show differential cooling between the two major structural culminations of the mountains. In the 3km high Jabal Akhdar culmination AHe single-grain ages range between 392 Ma and 101 Ma (2 sigma errors), AFT ages range from 518 Ma to 324 Ma, and ZHe single-grain ages range from 62 +/- 3Ma to 39 +/- 2 Ma. In the 2 km high Saih Hatat culmination AHe ages range from 26 +/- 4 to 12 +/- 4 Ma, AFT ages from 73 +/- 19Ma to 57 +/- 8 Ma, and ZHe single-grain ages from 81 +/- 4 Ma to 58 +/- 3 Ma. Thermal modeling demonstrates that cooling associated with uplift and erosion initiated at 40 Ma, indicating that uplift occurred 30 Myr after ophiolite obduction and at least 10 Myr before the Zagros collision. Therefore, this uplift cannot be related to either event. We propose that crustal thickening supporting the topography of the Al Hajar Mountains was caused by a slowdown of Makran subduction and that north Oman took up the residual fraction of N-S convergence between Arabia and Eurasia.

Mountain building is the result of large compressional forces in the Earth’s crust where two tectonic plates collide. This is why mountains only form at plate boundaries, of which the Al Hajar Mountains in Oman and the United Arab Emirates is thought to be an example of. These mountains have formed near the Arabian–Eurasian convergent plate boundary where continental collision began by 30 Ma at the earliest. However, the time at which the Al Hajar Mountains developed is less well constrained. Therefore, the timing of both the growth of the mountains, and the Arabian–Eurasian collision, needs to be understood first to be able to identify a correlation. Following this a causal link can be determined. Here we show, using apatite fission track and apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He dating, as well as stratigraphic constraints, that the Al Hajar Mountains were uplifted from 45 Ma to 15 Ma. We found that the mountains developed 33 Myr to 10 Myr earlier than the Arabian–Eurasian plate collision. Furthermore, the plate collision is ongoing, but the Al Hajar Mountains are tectonically quiescent. Our results indicate that the uplift of the Al Hajar Mountains cannot be correlated in time to the Arabian–Eurasian collision. Therefore the Al Hajar Mountains are not the result of this converging plate boundary.