This chapter concerns methods used in research on individual differences and second language (L2) French learning. The importance of individual differences for L2 learning is increasingly recognized in the SLA literature (e.g., Dewaele, 2009, 2011; Moyer, 2014; Douglas Fir Group, 2016), and a relatively large number of studies focus on L2 French. In this chapter, we first make an account of the existing research, starting with the research contexts that are represented and the methods that have been used. Then, we provide an overview of the linguistic variables and the individual differences that have been investigated. We then describe existing study designs and data collection instruments, as well as some ethical considerations related to participant recruitment, data elicitation, data storage, and data sharing. Finally, we discuss the existing research methods from a critical point of view, highlighting their contribution to and limitations within research on individual factors and second language acquisition in general. This leads us to identify areas that remain to be investigated and to suggest ways to advance the study of individual differences and L2 French learning from a methodological point of view.

This study investigates which types of target language (TL) use best explain the development of phraseological sophistication (mean pointwise mutual information of verb + direct object collocations) in argumentative essays written by second language learners of French during a nine-month sojourn abroad. Using data from the LANGSNAP corpus (Tracy-Ventura et al., 2016), we built a series of regression models to predict development on the basis of the learners’ self-reported social networks and engagement in various activities (e.g., small talk, reading newspapers). Our findings show that quantity of TL interaction and use on their own were not strong predictors of development. Rather, development was related to the types of activities that learners reported being engaging in while abroad, specifically reading. These results shed more light on the development of phraseological sophistication and speak to the importance of connecting linguistic development to the specific activities learners engage in while abroad.

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions:Previous studies have investigated if quantity of target language (TL) use predicts second language (L2) learning. The aim of this study is to understand what kind of TL use promotes host language proficiency among adults in the context of migration, operationalized as productive collocation knowledge.

Design/Methodology/Approach:The study takes a cross-sectional quantitative approach to explore what clusters of TL activities predict language proficiency among 63 first language (L1) French L2 Swedish long-term residents in Sweden.Data and Analysis:Data were collected within a larger project. Productive collocation knowledge was assessed by a collocation test and participants’ TL use through the Language Engagement Questionnaire. We conducted a factor analysis to identify patterns of TL use. We then used structural equation modeling to investigate the relationship between TL use and productive collocation knowledge.

Findings/Conclusions:Two factors emerged from the factor analysis: “Everyday Interactive Target Language Use” and “Non-interactive Target Language Use.” Only the former was related to productive collocation knowledge as evidenced by the structural equation modeling. “Everyday Interactive Target Language Use” included using the TL at the workplace, in conversations and service encounters, through text messages and emails, participating in online social network platforms, and browsing the internet.

The impact of language learning strategy use on achievement has been extensively researched in the traditional foreign language classroom. However, little is known about this topic in the context of online learning. In addition, previous research has focused primarily on English as a foreign or second language. This study fills these gaps by investigating the use of language learning strategies by students taking a beginner-level online course in a foreign language other than English at a Swedish university. The study examined the extent to which students used language learning strategies, whether age was related to the use of language learning strategies, and whether language learning strategy use increased the likelihood of foreign language achievement, operationalised as receiving the highest final course grade. Participants (n= 108), aged 19–76 years (M = 37.6), completed the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (Oxford, 1990). Three main findings emerged from the study. First, the students used metacognitive strategies most frequently, which could be explained by the fact that the online format requires great learner autonomy. Second, age was negatively but weakly related to the use of memory and affective strategies. Third, the use of cognitive strategies significantly increased the likelihood of foreign language achievement almost tenfold. Thus, this category of strategies appeared to be a strong predictor of achievement among the study participants.

The present study investigates the possible impact of language ideologies on second language proficiency. Based on interviews and a thematic analysis, we explored language ideologies among French long-term residents in Stockholm, Sweden. The participants had contrasting proficiency levels in the host community language: five were categorised as low-performers of Swedish and five as high-performers of Swedish, based on two linguistic measures. Overall, low-performing and high-performing language users in this sample of French long-term residents in Sweden appear to hold different ideologies related to mobility and language learning. While the low-performers tend to adhere to efficiency-related ideologies and a universalist cosmopolitan worldview, where English as a lingua franca is the most significant capital, the high-performers adhere to ideologies that are more identity-based and closer to assimilationist or nationalist views, where the participants see themselves as joining a majority culture into which they should adapt. High host language proficiency is seen as necessary capital for this. All in all, the study makes a clear case for further studies exploring language ideologies in relation to second language acquisition. 

L’apprentissage des unités polylexicales constitue un véritable défi dans le développement d’une langue additionnelle (Lx). Toutefois, la compétence communicative à l’oral repose en large partie sur la connaissance et l’utilisation de celles-ci. Ainsi, il est essentiel de les inclure dans l’enseignement de la communication orale. L’objectif de cet article est de faire le pont entre la recherche et l’enseignement de ces unités polylexicales, ici nommées séquences préfabriquées (SP). Dans l’article, nous préciserons les fonctions qu’ont les SP dans la communication orale. Ensuite, nous décrirons le processus d’apprentissage des SP dans une Lx et nous ferons un survol de quelques études qui proposent des méthodes pour faciliter leur apprentissage. Enfin, en nous inspirant de la recherche antérieure, nous proposerons des activités pédagogiques susceptibles d’inspirer les enseignants et de les soutenir dans l’incorporation des SP dans l’enseignement de la communication orale en français Lx.

Learning polylexical units is a real challenge in the development of an additional language (Lx). However, communicative competence in oral communication is largely based on knowledge and use of these units. It is therefore essential to include them in the teaching of oral communication. The aim of this article is to bridge the gap between research and the teaching of these polylexical units, referred to here as prefabricated sequences (PS). In the article, we shall describe the functions of PSs in oral communication. Next, we will describe the process of learning SPs in an Lx and review some studies that propose methods to facilitate their learning. Finally, drawing on previous research, we will propose pedagogical activities likely to inspire and support teachers in incorporating SPs into the teaching of oral communication in Lx French.

The study abroad (SA) context is assumed to be ideal for second language (L2) learning because of the opportunities it provides to use the target language (TL) and to socialize with TL speakers. Although research conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic generally confirms this assumption, little is known about how the COVID-19 pandemic modified conditions for L2 learning in a SA context. This study contributes by documenting Swedish French language students’ patterns of TL use and perceived linguistic progress in a SA context in France during the COVID-19 pandemic (spring 2021) and compares these data with data from an equivalent group of Swedish French language students who studied in France before the pandemic. The results suggest that the SA context provided advantageous learning conditions even during the pandemic.

The study investigates how psychological and social factors relate to productive collocation knowledge in late L2 learners of Swedish (French L1) (N = 59). The individual factors are language aptitude (measured through the LLAMA aptitude test), reported language use, social networks, acculturation, and personality. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that positive effects were found for LLAMA D (phonetic memory), LLAMA E (sound-symbol correspondence), reported language use, and length of residence (LOR). Furthermore, a negative effect was found for the personality variable Open-mindedness. These variables explained 63% (adjusted R²) of the variance, which represents large effects compared to other studies on individual factors. In sum, the findings confirm earlier results on the importance of language aptitude and language use for productive collocation knowledge. They also add evidence of the importance of personality and LOR. In sum, cognitive and social factors combine to explain different outcomes in adult L2 acquisition.

This study investigated what psychological and social factors predict 'perceived nativelikeness' in late second language (L2) learners of French (L1 Swedish) (N = 62) with a minimum length of residence (LOR) of 5 years in France. The included factors were: language aptitude (LLAMA), acculturation (VIA), personality (MPQ), target language engagement and social networks (number of relations in L2). LOR and Length of French studies were also included as extraneous variables. Multiple linear regression analyses showed that positive effects were found for LLAMA D (sound recognition), acculturation (VIA France and VIA Sweden), number of relations in L2 and LOR. A negative effect was found for the personality variable Social initiative. The strongest effects were found for LLAMA D, Social initiative and LOR. All variables together explained 25% (adjusted R-2) of the variance in the sample, which represents medium-sized effects in relation to other studies on individual factors. In sum, these findings confirm results from earlier studies on the importance of language aptitude and acculturation in late L2 acquisition. They also add evidence of the importance of personality, social networks, and LOR. On a more general note psychological and social factors combine to explain different outcomes in adult L2 acquisition, although the effects of psychological variables are deemed somewhat stronger.

The purpose of this study is to better understand conditions for foreign language (FL) learning in Sweden. Research suggests that foreign language learners benefit from informal target language (TL) exposure and use outside the classroom (e.g., Peters, 2018; Sundqvist, 2009). While studies conducted in a Swedish context show that there are rich opportunities to come in contact with the English language outside the classroom, little is known about the learners’ extramural exposure to and use of other FLs. In analogy with the term ‘Extramural English’ (Sundqvist, 2009), this study explores ‘Extramural French’. The study includes 59 university students enrolled in a French language course. Using the survey method, we investigated the participants’ engagement in Extramural French (frequency and type), and the relationship between language learning motivation, self-assessed proficiency, and frequency of Extramural French. The results showed that about half of the sample engaged in Extramural French on a relatively frequent basis. The most frequent extramural activities included listening to music, watching TV and films, and browsing online. About a third of the sample had regular access to social interaction in French. In addition, language learning motivation increased the likelihood to spend time on Extramural French activities. Overall, the study provides insights into the conditions for FL learning in a Swedish context.