The topic of the existence of planetary winter circulation regimes has gone through a long debate. This article contributes to this debate by investigating nonlinearity in a 3-level quasi-geostrophic model and the Japanese JRA-55 reanalysis. The method uses averaged flow tendencies and kernel principal component (PC) analysis. Within two-dimensional (2D) kernel PCs the model reveals two fixed (or stationary) points. The probability density function (PDF) within this space is strongly bimodal where the modes match the regions of low tendencies in consistency with low-order conceptual models. The circulation regimes represent respectively zonal and blocked flows. Application to daily winter northern hemisphere sea level pressure and 500-hPa geopotential height yields strong bimodal PDFs. The modes represent respectively polar highs and lows with signatures of North Atlantic Oscillation. A clear climate change signal is observed showing a clear reduction (increase) of occurrence probability of polar high (low), translating into an increase of probability of zonal flow. Relation of the climate change signal to the polar amplification hypothesis is discussed.

The atmosphere is a complex system with an infinite number of independent variables. The best approximations of the atmosphere are made using numerical models. The use of such models provides an invaluable tool for studying the atmospheric system. In the atmosphere, narrow bands of strong winds at upper levels, called jet streams, impact the underlying large-scale weather conditions. In this Ph.D. thesis, I have studied jet stream variability from reanalyses and climate models. The regional climate model RCA4 simulations over South Asia reveal a good agreement between model results and reanalysis for jet stream representation. Lateral boundary data sources are believed to contribute to discrepancies over the mountainous regions.

Currently, the weather forecasts have an upper limit of around 10 days. The atmospheric variability between 10 to 40 days is known as low frequency variability (LFV). This Ph.D. thesis also examined the LFV from a non-linear perspective, which indicated the existence of multiple recurring atmospheric conditions. The North Atlantic eddy-driven jet, which explains a major part of the winter variability over the North Atlantic region, has three preferred latitudinal positions situated south, closest to, and north of its climatological mean position. These positions represent, respectively, Greenland blocking, a low-pressure system over the North Atlantic, and a high-pressure system over the North Atlantic. An improved representation of this jet is reported from CMIP5 GCMs. However, the existence of three preferred latitudinal positions remains a challenge for these models.

The statistical properties of recurring atmospheric conditions can potentially enhance current weather and climate predictions. Techniques from dynamical system theory, like unstable periodic orbits, can be employed to reconstruct such statistical properties. This has been demonstrated, for the first time, in a three-level baroclinic model, of intermediate complexity, for the Northern Hemisphere winter.

In the Northern Hemisphere winter, there are times when the stratosphere gets warmer due to upward propagation of heat fluxes from the troposphere. This type of situation triggers a major sudden stratospheric warming, resulting in the equatorward shift of the jet streams and yielding much colder than usual surface conditions over the extratropics. I have studied thirty such events from the Japanese reanalysis data in relation to the three preferred latitudinal positions of the North Atlantic eddy-driven jet. The probability of strong upward propagation from the troposphere is significantly higher for the central position of the North Atlantic eddy-driven jet. These findings can potentially improve the troposphere-stratosphere predictions.

Nonlinearity in the Northern Hemisphere’s winter time atmospheric flow is investigated from both an intermediate complexity model of the extratropics and reanalyses. A long simulation is obtained using a three-level quasi-geostrophic model on the sphere. Kernel empirical orthogonal functions (EOFs), which help delineate complex structures, are used along with the local flow tendencies. Two fixed points are obtained, which are associated with strong bimodality in two-dimensional kernel PC space in consistency with conceptual low-order dynamics. The regimes reflect zonal and blocked flows. The analysis is then extended to ERA-40 and JRA-55 reanalyses using daily sea level pressure (SLP) and geopotential heights in the stratosphere (20-hPa) and troposphere (500-hPa). In the stratosphere, trimodality is obtained, representing disturbed, displaced and undisturbed states of the winter polar vortex. In the troposphere the probability density functions (PDFs), for both fields, within the two-dimensional (2D) kernel EOF space are strongly bimodal. The modes correspond broadly to opposite phases of the Arctic Oscillation with signature of negative North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). Over the North Atlantic/European sector a trimodal PDF is also obtained with two strong and one weak modes. The strong modes are associated, respectively, with the north (or +NAO) and south (or –NAO) positions of the eddy-driven jet strteam. The third weak mode is interpreted as a transition path between the two positions. A climate change signal is also observed in the troposphere of the winter hemisphere, resulting in an increase (decrease) in the frequency of the polar high (low) consistent with an increase of zonal flow frequency.

In the present research, we used bias corrected output of regional climate model (RegCM4.3) to generate streamflow for future climate change projections in the Northwestern Upper Indus Basin (NUIB) under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios. The average annual runoff was found to be continuously increasing by the end of 21st century. The increase in precipitation as well as the streamflow for summer and winter in the NUIB indicated that RegCM4.3 simulated climate change projections were realistically transferred to HEC-HMS hydrological model. Maximum streamflow peaks, both in frequency and magnitude, were observed in July and August over three streamflow gauges (i.e. Besham, Nowshera and Khairabad) posing possible threats of flood risks during the monsoon season in Pakistan. Significant streamflow changes were projected for winter and spring seasons. The analysis of flow duration curve for three hydrometric stations indicates that the flow occurrence probability could be greater under both scenarios relative to the reference period. The increase in streamflow was projected under high (Q(5)) and medium (Q(50)) flow, which could possibly be related with the increase in monsoon precipitation events in the NUIB. Overall it is to be expected that the NUIB will confront more floods as a result of projected increase in medium and high flow, which demands better policies and management towards the water resources of the NUIB. This study is expected to contribute considerably to climate change impact assessment studies over the NUIB, Pakistan.

For several decades, the interaction between the troposphere and the stratosphere has attracted the attention of climate scientists, not least for the benefit it has on understanding dynamical processes and predictability. This interaction has been revived recently in regard to downward disturbance propagation effects on tropospheric circulations. In the current study, we investigate such interactions over the North Atlantic region in relation to the eddy-driven jet stream. The atmospheric low-frequency variability in the winter over the North Atlantic sector is mainly associated with variations in the latitudinal positions of the North Atlantic eddy-driven jet stream. The Japanese Reanalysis JRA-55 data has been used to analyze the jet latitude statistics. The results reveal robust trimoclality of the North Atlantic jet reflecting the latitudinal (i.e., northern, central and southern) positions in agreement with other reanalysis products. 30 major Sudden Stratospheric Warming (SSW) events are analyzed in relation to the three modes or regimes of the eddy-driven jet. The frequency of occurrence of the eddy-driven jet to be in a specific latitudinal position is largely related to the wave amplitude. The stratospheric polar vortex experiences significant changes via upward wave propagation associated with the jet positions. It is found that when the jet is close to its central mode the wave propagation of zonal wave number 2 (WN2) from the troposphere to the stratosphere is significantly high. Eliassen-Palm (EP) fluxes from all waves and zonal wave number 1 (WN1) depict the deceleration of the stratospheric polar vortex for the eddy-driven jet with a latitudinal position close to the northern mode. Plumb wave activity variations originate mainly in the Atlantic sector depending on the North Atlantic eddy-driven jet states. These significant associations between preferred latitudinal positions of the North Atlantic eddy-driven jet and the stratospheric dynamics may be a source of predictability.

The North Atlantic eddy-driven jet is a dominant feature of extratropical climate and its variability is associated with the large-scale changes in the surface climate of midlatitudes. Variability of this jet is analysed in a set of General Circulation Models (GCMs) from the Coupled Model Inter-comparison Project phase-5 (CMIP5) over the North Atlantic region. The CMIP5 simulations for the 20th century climate (Historical) are compared with the ERA40 reanalysis data. The jet latitude index, wind speed and jet persistence are analysed in order to evaluate 11 CMIP5 GCMs and to compare them with those from CMIP3 integrations. The phase of mean seasonal cycle of jet latitude and wind speed from historical runs of CMIP5 GCMs are comparable to ERA40. The wind speed mean seasonal cycle by CMIP5 GCMs is overestimated in winter months. A positive (negative) jet latitude anomaly in historical simulations relative to ERA40 is observed in summer (winter). The ensemble mean of jet latitude biases in historical simulations of CMIP3 and CMIP5 with respect to ERA40 are and respectively. Thus indicating improvements in CMIP5 in comparison to the CMIP3 GCMs. The comparison of historical and future simulations of CMIP5 under RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 for the period 2076-2099, shows positive anomalies in the jet latitude implying a poleward shifted jet. The results from the analysed models offer no specific improvements in simulating the trimodality of the eddy-driven jet.

A number of simulations with the fourth release of the Rossby Center Regional Climate Model (RCA4) conducted within the COordinated Regional climate Downscaling EXperiment (CORDEX) framework for South Asia at 50 km horizontal resolution are evaluated for mean winter (December-March) and summer (June-September) climate during 1980-2005. The two driving data sets ERA-Interim reanalysis and the general circulation model EC-Earth have been analyzed besides the RCA4 simulations to address the added value. RCA4 successfully captures the mean climate in both the seasons. The biases in RCA4 appear to come from the driving data sets which are amplified after downscaling. The jet streams influencing the seasonal precipitation variability in both seasons are also analyzed. The spatial and quantitative analysis over CORDEX South Asia generally revealed the ability of RCA4 to capture the mean seasonal climate as well as the position and strength of the jet streams despite weak/strong jet representation in the driving data. The EC-Earth downscaled with RCA4 exhibited cold biases over the domain and a weak Somali jet over the Arabian Sea. Moreover, the moisture transport from the Arabian Sea during summer is pronounced in RCA4 simulations resulting in enhanced monsoon rainfall over northwestern parts of India. Both the Somali jet and the tropical easterly jet become stronger during strong summer monsoon years. However, there is robust impact of wet years in summer over the Somali jet. Wet-minus-dry composites in winter indicate strengthening (weakening) of the subtropical jet in RCA4 run by ERA-Interim (EC-Earth). The driving data have clear reflections on the RCA4 simulations.

We assessed the present and future climatologies of mean summer monsoon over South Asia using a high resolution regional climate model (RegCM4) with a 25 km horizontal resolution. In order to evaluate the performance of the RegCM4 for the reference period (1976-2005) and for the far future (2070-2099), climate change projections under two greenhouse gas representative concentration pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) were made, the lateral boundary conditions being provided by the geophysical fluid dynamic laboratory global model (GFDL-ESM2M). The regional climate model (RCM) improves the simulation of seasonal mean temperature and precipitation patterns compared to driving global climate model (GCM) during present-day climate conditions. The regional characteristic features of South Asian summer monsoon (SASM), like the low level jet stream and westerly flow over the northern the Arabian Sea, are well captured by the RegCM4. In spite of some discrepancies, the RegCM4 could simulate the Tibetan anticyclone and the direction of the tropical easterly jet reasonably well at 200 hPa. The projected temperature changes in 2070-2099 relative to 1976-2005 for GFDL-ESM2M show increased warming compared to RegCM4. The projected patterns at the end of 21st century shows an increase in precipitation over the Indian Peninsula and the Western Ghats. The possibilities of excessive precipitation include increased southwesterly flow in the wet period and the effect of model bias on climate change. However, the spatial patterns of precipitation are decreased in intensity and magnitude as the monsoon approaches the foothills of the Himalayas. The RegCM4-projected dry conditions over northeastern India are possibly related to the anomalous anticyclonic circulations in both scenarios.

This study examines the changes in soil moisture derived from 24 global climate model (GCM) simulations of Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5 (CMIP5) over the cropping seasons (Kharif and Rabi) of Pakistan from 2021 to 2050. The comparison of historical run with reanalysis global land data assimilation system for the period 1971–2000 have shown that the soil moisture conditions in Rabi season were well captured by most of the CMIP5 GCMs as compared to Kharif. The historical and projected temporal trends of soil moisture showed slightly decreasing trend in soil moisture during Kharif under representative concentration pathways (RCP) 8.5 while Rabi depicted a well-marked declining trend under both the RCPs (4.5 and 8.5) from 1951 to 2050. The decadal and mean near future projections for Kharif and Rabi had been analyzed from 2021 to 2050. Kharif showed soil moisture stress (−3 to −9 %) in the decade 2041–2050 whereas Rabi projected the decrease in soil moisture (−5 to −15 %) in all the three decades (2021–2030, 2031–2040 and 2041–2050) by RCP 4.5 which was then further amplified (−5 to −20 %) under RCP 8.5. The mean projections also showed the negligible decrease in soil moisture during Kharif and severe soil moisture stress over the southern parts of Pakistan specifically south western areas of Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwah, southern Punjab and southern Sindh. In order to support the soil moisture changes over Pakistan crop land the decadal and mean evaporation of water from the soil projections also showed decline (−4 to −12 %) in Kharif and extreme drop (−6 to −24 %) in water evaporation from soil under both the RCPs. In nut shell the study clearly indicates the intensification of soil moisture stress in near future during Rabi season in Pakistan.