In a changing environment, there is an increasing interest to monitor ecosystems to understand their responses to environmental change. Seagrass meadows are highly important ecosystems, but at the same time they are under a constant threat from human activities, as well as climate impacts, and marked declines have been observed worldwide. Despite increasing efforts, monitoring of multi-specific tropical seagrass meadows is scarce, particularly in developing regions. Here we analysed data from the first 10 years of a monitoring programme in a marine protected area in Zanzibar (Tanzania) to assess temporal changes in seagrass cover and species composition and to detect potential drivers of change. The seagrass meadow experienced a strong gradual decline in seagrass cover and changes in species composition, followed by a period of recovery. However, the timing and length of these temporal patterns varied in space (between transects). Of the climate variables considered, cloud cover, temperature, storm occurrence, sunspot activity and the height of the diurnal low tide seemed to influence seagrass cover, although only to a small extent, suggesting that the monitored seagrass meadow may be influenced by other unmeasured factors. Considering our results, seagrass meadows seem to be highly dynamic at small spatial scales even in the absence of major local anthropogenic impacts. Further monitoring programmes should be developed in the region to gain a better understanding of seagrass temporal variability and causes of change.

Marine protected areas (MPAs) have been shown to increase long-term temporal stability of fish communities and enhance ecosystem resilience to anthropogenic disturbance. Yet, the potential ability of MPAs to buffer effects of environmental variability at shorter time scales remains widely unknown. In the tropics, the yearly monsoon cycle is a major natural force affecting marine organisms in tropical regions, and its timing and severity are predicted to change over the coming century, with potentially severe effects on marine organisms, ecosystems and ecosystem services. Here, we assessed the ability of MPAs to buffer effects of monsoon seasonality on seagrass-associated fish communities, using a field survey in two MPAs (no-take zones) and two unprotected (open-access) sites around Zanzibar (Tanzania). We assessed the temporal stability of fish density and community structure within and outside MPAs during three monsoon seasons in 2014-2015, and investigated several possible mechanisms that could regulate temporal stability. Our results show that MPAs did not affect fish density and diversity, but that juvenile fish densities were temporally more stable within MPAs. Second, fish community structure was more stable within MPAs for juvenile and adult fish, but not for subadult fish or the total fish community. Third, the observed effects may be due to a combination of direct and indirect (seagrass-mediated) effects of seasonality and, potentially, fluctuating fishing pressure outside MPAs. In summary, these MPAs may not have the ability to enhance fish density and diversity and to buffer effects of monsoon seasonality on the whole fish community. However, they may increase the temporal stability of certain groups, such as juvenile fish. Consequently, our results question whether MPAs play a general role in the maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning under changing environmental conditions in tropical seagrass fish communities.

Herbivory is a key process influencing the structure and function of both terrestrial and aquatic systems. In seagrass ecosystems, moderate levels of herbivory may stimulate plant growth, compensating for the loss of eaten tissue. However, the relationship between herbivory and seagrass growth can be influenced by an array of factors, such as seasonality, herbivore abundance, and presence of epiphytes, many of which can be directly or indirectly affected by human activities like fishing. Here, we used data from a multi-season field survey in fished and protected seagrass beds to assess how fishing and seasonality affect the link between herbivores, herbivory, and plant growth in seagrasses. Path analyses revealed an interactive effect of seasonality and protection. In protected seagrass beds, seasonally high herbivore abundance positively affected herbivory rates, which in turn enhanced seagrass growth. This link was however not apparent in seagrass beds subjected to fishing activities. At the same time, seasonality effects seemed stronger in fished areas, suggesting that in addition to weakening a positive herbivory-plant growth interaction, fishing increases temporal instability of ecosystems. Our results highlight the need for evaluating not only the direct effects of fisheries exploitation on fish populations, but also the potential indirect effects on ecosystems, to improve fisheries management.

Marine ecosystems are under increasing human pressure and therefore in need of effective management. Marine protected areas (MPAs) can reduce the effects of local disturbances on habitat-forming benthic organisms like corals and seagrasses and are well-known to affect species composition. However, we know considerably less about their effects on organisms’ traits (physiological, morphological, and/or behavioural characteristics), which in turn dictate how organisms respond to stressors and influence ecosystem processes and services. We conducted a field survey along the Kenyan coast to assess the effects of MPAs on species and trait composition of seagrass assemblages; an important group of habitat-forming plants in shallow coastal areas that form the basis for multiple ecosystem services. We measured five morphological traits (shoot density, leaf length and width, number of leaves per shoot, and above:below-ground biomass ratio) on multispecies seagrass assemblages within government MPAs, community MPAs, and fished areas in three habitat zones (shallow, mid-lagoon and, reef). Using causal modelling (path analysis) of multivariate data, we found that MPAs influence seagrass species composition and, indirectly, trait composition in mid-lagoon areas. Meanwhile, there were no MPA effects in the shallow intertidal (potentially because of impacts from MPA-related tourism), and weak effects in the reef zone, presumably due to competition from corals. Finally, most of the MPA effects on overall seagrass trait composition were explained by species turnover, rather than phenotypic plasticity. In conclusion, MPAs appear to be an effective conservation tool for seagrass assemblages by reducing local disturbances and favouring seagrass species with certain traits, primarily in mid-lagoon areas. However, the lack of MPA effect in intertidal areas highlights the need for management approaches that regulate human impacts across the whole tropical coastal zone.