The aim of this thesis is to highlight the heterogeneous cultural landscape in Sápmi through the study of food. By studying food and the choices of specific foodstuffs in Sápmi AD 600–1900, a greater understanding can be gained on the history of this area during the period. A number of well-known archaeological sites in Sápmi have been chosen as the focus, dating from the Late Iron Age in north-central Sweden to the late-19^th century in northern Norway. By means of stable isotope analysis (δ¹³C, δ¹⁵N, δ³⁴S and ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) and elemental analysis on human and animal skeletal remains, the diversity in food culture has been studied. The chronological range in this thesis is rather broad but has been determined by the available archaeological skeletal material from the area. The overarching questions are how cultural diversity is reflected in different food practices, how individual life history and studies of mobility contribute to the understanding of life in Sápmi, what role the reindeer had in the diet in Sápmi during the period studied, and finally, what impact mining activities had on the local population in Sillbajåhkå/Silbojokk in terms of lead poisoning?

Through the different case studies, it has been demonstrated that food consumption was by no means uniform and static during the period, and that the differences in food consumption reflect a multicultural landscape. Individuals buried in Vivallen had a diet based on terrestrial and freshwater resources, in contrast to individuals from Guollesuolu/Gullholmen and Kirkegårdsøya, who had diets based predominantly on marine protein. However, the diet of individuals buried at Gullholmen was much more varied than at Kirkegårdsøya, indicating a multi-ethnic presence. The intra-individual analysis of diet and mobility provided information on a more complex society. Whether they were Sámi or non-Sámi is difficult to assess, but they were clearly a culturally heterogeneous group of people. The individuals that were buried in Rounala and Sillbajåhkå/Silbojokk in northern Sweden had a mixed diet, including foodstuffs from terrestrial, freshwater and/or marine environments. The sites overlap chronologically, with Rounala dating from the 14^th to the 18^th century, and Silbojokk from the 17^th to the 18^th century. While individuals buried in Rounala had a mixed diet, focused on freshwater fish, individuals buried in Silbojokk had a much more varied diet. Through the analysis of sulphur and strontium isotopes, it was possible to investigate intra-individual change in diet and mobility. Further, the results indicated that reindeer protein was not a major food source at the sites studied.

The mining activities at Silbojokk can be seen as the result of colonial infraction on nature and people in Sápmi by the Swedish state, with an immense and negative impact on the environment and for people there. This thesis includes the analysis and handling of human skeletal remains, which always has ethical implications: even more so in areas subjected to colonialism, such as Sápmi. My aim has been to highlight the importance of discussing reburial and repatriation and offer some thoughts on how this may be handled in the future.

Archaeology relies on the ordering of past events to study cultural developments. This has traditionally been achieved by looking at the stratigraphic depths of materials relative to one another. In this way, chronologies of past technological progressions and stylistic changes can be built. The introduction of radiocarbon dating in the 1950s revolutionised archaeology, allowing for direct, numerical estimates of a sample’s age. This allowed for more detailed past chronologies than was previously possible. Radiocarbon dating utilises the radioactive decay of carbon-14 (radiocarbon, ¹⁴C) to estimate a sample’s age with older samples having less ¹⁴C. Shortly after the introduction of radiocarbon dating, however, it was demonstrated that ¹⁴C is not evenly distributed globally. Typically, there is less ¹⁴C in marine (and sometimes freshwater) systems compared to the atmosphere. This results in aquatic samples appearing older than they are, a phenomenon known as a ‘reservoir effect’. When radiocarbon dating material from archaeological sites with marine activity, this is an important consideration. With aquatic resources being vital for human populations across the globe and for millennia, the ability to interpret aquatic radiocarbon dates is incredibly important. Making use of radiocarbon dates without properly handling any reservoir effects have proved problematic, sometimes resulting in archaeologically incorrect chronologies being constructed. Reservoir effects can, however, be managed. 

This thesis demonstrates how archaeologists should interpret radiocarbon dates from aquatic samples, avoiding erroneously-old age estimates. Through careful sample selection, considering complicated carbon source mixing, measuring the scale and variability of reservoir effects within a single ecosystem and using prior knowledge about a sample’s age, the dating of aquatic material can be greatly improved. This thesis also details a novel method of dating teeth, reducing uncertainty, and concomitantly estimating the extent of the reservoir effect. This was achieved by dating dental increments, combined with complex modelling. It is clear that there is no single method of handling reservoir effects, and methods for dealing with reservoir effects will differ depending on the archaeological site and specific research question. In this thesis, novel and existing methods of dealing with reservoir effects are demonstrated by considering five case studies from four archaeological sites:

At the site of Hamanaka 2 (Rebun Island, Japan), it is demonstrated that by carefully selecting samples without reservoir effects, the dating of the stratigraphy of the site can be accurately modelled. Concerning the cemetery site of Rounala (northern Sweden), it is demonstrated that by carefully reconstructing complex human diets, the dating of humans can be modelled to a high resolution. This has implications for the understanding of the Church’s relationship with the cemetery. At the site of Ekven (Chukotka, Bering Strait) reservoir effect variability between species is carefully described. A more detailed understanding of regional reservoir effects allows for more accurate dating of human remains from the marine hunting Old Bering Sea culture. More accurate dating of human remains allows for the refining of existing Old Bering Sea culture chronologies. Finally, concerning the material from Resmo (Ӧland, Sweden), a novel dental wiggle matching model is presented as a possible method for reducing dating uncertainty in individuals with a marine dietary component.