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Smelling Without A Smell: How olfactory-perceptual representations are activated by words
Stockholm University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-0241-6734
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

We spend every day using our senses to interact with the world. Though we use language as a way to understand the sensory world, language might have different roles for different senses. Freely identifying odors in naming tasks is more difficult than with senses like vision, making olfaction an interesting place to study the intersection between language and the senses. While free olfactory identification is poor, word cues strongly increase our ability to identify odors. This has led some to conclude that olfaction is more dependent on supporting information from other senses, and that odors are encoded in a coarse way, so it is particularly dependent on language and sensory cues to function capably. This has further led to debate regarding whether language can activate olfactory-related representations in the brain, or whether odor and language systems are disconnected. The general aim of this thesis was to investigate whether and how word cues can affect olfactory processes and representations.

Study I investigated whether the olfactory system is more reliant on object-based predictive verbal cues than the visual system. Using two behavioural experiments and one neuroimaging experiment, Study I found that reaction time is most delayed when words incorrectly cue an (unexpected) odor target. Study I further demonstrated that the primary and secondary olfactory cortices are more activated by odors that were unexpected, something similar to predictive coding in the visual system, but also that visual and cognitive activations were observed by unexpected odors. Study II investigated whether word cues could activate olfactory representations similar to actual odor perception. Using an in-person olfactory psychophysics experiment, an online experiment, and embeddings from a custom trained Large Language Model, Study II found that odor similarity scores estimated from odor names were very strongly correlated with their odor-based counterparts, and that this correlation was only mediated to a small degree by the semantic similarity of the word pairs, suggesting word-based representations of odors closely resemble odor representations. Study III assessed whether people can make accurate judgements about odor similarities based on viewing words and when effective odor imagery was prevented by nose blocking. Study III found that people can very accurately determine how similar two odors are using only word cues, and that people can seemingly do this when their  nose is blocked.

Overall, this research supports the idea that there are unique mechanisms whereby word cues guide olfactory processes, and that odor representations can be accessed by perceiving odor names, without the presence of odors or elicited vivid mental images of odors. Even though odors are often hard to name or describe verbally, olfaction may thus be strongly shaped by language cues.

Abstract [sv]

Vi använder varje dag våra sinnen för att interagera med världen. Även om vi använder språk som ett sätt att förstå den sensoriska världen, kan språk ha olika roller för olika sinnen. Att fritt identifiera lukter i namngivningsuppgifter är svårare än med sinnen som synen, vilket gör luktsinnet till ett intressant område att studera samspelet mellan språk och sinnen. Medan fri luktidentifiering är dålig, ökar tillgången till alternativ starkt vår förmåga att identifiera lukter. Detta har lett vissa till slutsatsen att luktsinnet är mer beroende av stödjande information från andra sinnen, och att lukter kodas på ett grovt sätt, vilket gör det särskilt beroende av språkliga och andra sensoriska signaler för att fungera väl. Detta har ytterligare lett till debatt om huruvida lukternas namn kan aktivera luktrelaterade representationer i hjärnan, eller om lukt- och språksystem är bortkopplade. Det övergripande syftet med denna avhandling var att undersöka om och hur lukters namn kan påverka luktprocesser och representationer.

Studie I undersökte om luktsystemet är mer beroende av objektbaserade prediktiva verbala signaler än det visuella systemet. Med hjälp av två beteendeexperiment och ett hjärnavbildningsexperiment fann Studie I att reaktionstiden är särskilt fördröjd när ett ord felaktigt anger en lukt (som därför blir oväntad). Studie I visade vidare att den primära och sekundära luktbarken aktiveras mer av oväntade lukter, vilket liknar prediktiv kodning i det visuella systemet, men också att visuella och kognitiva hjärnområden aktiverades av oväntade lukter. Studie II undersökte om ord kunde aktivera luktrepresentationer som liknar faktiska luktupplevelser. Med hjälp av ett luktpsykofysiskt laboratorieexperiment, ett online-experiment och ordinbäddningar från en specialtränad stor språkmodell fann Studie II att luktlikheter som uppskattades endast med hjälp av luktnamn var mycket starkt korrelerade med deras luktbaserade motsvarigheter, och att denna korrelation endast förklarades i liten grad av den semantiska likheten mellan ordparen som språkmodellen genererade, vilket tyder på att ordbaserade representationer av lukter liknar luktrepresentationer. Studie III bedömde om människor kan göra korrekta bedömningar om luktlikheter baserat enbart utifrån luktnamn och när den mentala luktföreställningsförmågan förhindras genom att näsan blockeras. Studie III fann att människor mycket väl kan avgöra hur lika två lukter är, enbart med hjälp av lukternas namn, och att människor till synes kan göra detta utan att föreställa sig lukter.

Sammantaget stöder denna forskning idén att det finns mekanismer som är unika för luktsinnet genom vilka ordsignaler påverkar luktprocesser, och att luktrepresentationer kan aktiveras av lukters namn, utan närvaron av lukter eller framkallandet av livfulla mentala bilder av lukter. Även om lukter ofta är svåra att namnge eller beskriva verbalt, kan luktsinnet således starkt formas av språkliga signaler.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: Department of Psychology, Stockholm University , 2025. , p. 109
Keywords [en]
multimodal, predictive coding, sensory integration, olfaction, imagery
National Category
Psychology
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:su:diva-245924ISBN: 978-91-8107-368-3 (print)ISBN: 978-91-8107-369-0 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:su-245924DiVA, id: diva2:1991700
Public defence
2025-10-17, Lärosal 16, Building 2, Floor 2, Albano, Albanovägen 12, Stockholm, 13:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-09-25 Created: 2025-08-25 Last updated: 2025-09-25Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Olfactory Categorization is Shaped by a Transmodal Cortical Network for Evaluating Perceptual Predictions
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Olfactory Categorization is Shaped by a Transmodal Cortical Network for Evaluating Perceptual Predictions
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2024 (English)In: Journal of Neuroscience, ISSN 0270-6474, E-ISSN 1529-2401, Vol. 44, no 22, article id e1232232024Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Creating and evaluating predictions are considered important features in sensory perception. Little is known about processing differences between the senses and their cortical substrates. Here, we tested the hypothesis that olfaction, the sense of smell, would be highly dependent on (nonolfactory) object-predictive cues and involve distinct cortical processing features. We developed a novel paradigm to compare prediction error processing across senses. Participants listened to spoken word cues (e.g., “lilac”) and determined whether target stimuli (odors or pictures) matched the word cue or not. In two behavioral experiments (total n = 113; 72 female), the disparity between congruent and incongruent response times was exaggerated for olfactory relative to visual targets, indicating a greater dependency on predictive verbal cues to process olfactory targets. A preregistered fMRI study (n = 30; 19 female) revealed the anterior cingulate cortex (a region central for error detection) being more activated by incongruent olfactory targets, indicating a role for olfactory predictive error processing. Additionally, both the primary olfactory and visual cortices were significantly activated for incongruent olfactory targets, suggesting olfactory prediction errors are dependent on cross-sensory processing resources, whereas visual prediction errors are not. We propose that olfaction is characterized by a strong dependency on predictive (nonolfactory) cues and that odors are evaluated in the context of such predictions by a designated transmodal cortical network. Our results indicate differences in how predictive cues are used by different senses in rapid decision-making.

Keywords
multimodal, predictive coding, sensory integration
National Category
Neurosciences
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-235777 (URN)10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1232-23.2024 (DOI)001251866300011 ()38561229 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85194950048 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2024-11-25 Created: 2024-11-25 Last updated: 2025-08-25Bibliographically approved
2. Evidence From Odor Similarity Judgments Suggests a Widespread Ability to Imagine Odors
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Evidence From Odor Similarity Judgments Suggests a Widespread Ability to Imagine Odors
2025 (English)In: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, ISSN 0096-1523, E-ISSN 1939-1277, Vol. 51, no 5, p. 629-642Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

A persistent belief holds that humans can imagine visual content but not odors. While visual imagery is regarded as recreating a perceptual representation, it is unknown whether olfactory mental imagery shares a perceptual format. Visual imagery studies have demonstrated this perceptual formatting using distance and shape similarity judgments, whereas olfactory studies often use single-odor vividness ratings, complicating the establishment of perceptual formatting for odors. Using odor pair similarity scores from two experiments (odor-based: 8,880 ratings from 37 participants, including 20 women; label-based: 129,472 ratings from 2,023 participants, including 1,164 women), we observed a strong correlation (r =.71) between odor-based and label-based odor pairs. The correlation was unaffected by gender and age and was present in a wide range of self-perceived olfactory functions. Pleasantness similarity was the main determinant of overall similarity for both odor-based (r=−.63) and label-based (r=−.45) odor pairs. We then used a large language model to derive semantic similarity scores for the labels of all odor pairs. Semantic similarity only mediated a small part of the observed correlation, further supporting our conclusions that odor imagery shares a perceptual formatting with vision, that odor percepts may be elicited from verbal labels alone, and that odor pair pleasantness may be a dominant and accessible feature in this regard.

Keywords
imagery, olfaction, Word2Vec
National Category
Psychology (Excluding Applied Psychology)
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-242432 (URN)10.1037/xhp0001292 (DOI)001438148200001 ()40048214 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-105003689706 (Scopus ID)
Note

This work was funded by grants from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation to Jonas K. Olofsson (KAW 2016:0229), as well as the Swedish Research Council to Jonas K. Olofsson (2020-00266) and to Thomas Hörberg (2021-03440).

Available from: 2025-04-23 Created: 2025-04-23 Last updated: 2025-08-25Bibliographically approved

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Pierzchajlo, Stephen

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