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A Relationally Informed Psychedelic Science: Conceptual framework and empirical studies
Stockholm University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Personality, Social and Developmental Psychology.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9114-4290
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Recent years have seen a revival of neurobiological, psychiatric, and psychological research into psychedelics (i.e., 5-HT 2A receptor agonists), their effects on sensory perception, mood, and thought, their associated risks, and their therapeutic potential. However, evidence-based explanatory models are still nascent, and there is a need for comprehensive, widely agreed-upon theoretical frameworks to explain the underlying processes and mechanisms of change. This dissertation describes a relational psychedelic science informed by attachment theory, one of the most enduring and influential psychological theories that “reaches from the biological depths of our being to its furthest spiritual reaches” (Holmes, 2014, p. 83). Decades of research support the role of attachment to the many fields relevant to psychedelics, including lifespan development, self-regulation and related cognitive processes, interpersonal relationships, psychotherapy, and neuroscience, not to mention the religious, spiritual, or mystical experiences that often characterize psychedelic phenomenology. First, I outline how, within a broader contextual-experiential model of psychedelic drug effects, an attachment theory framework may help integrate key findings and concepts from the growing body of psychedelic literature and generate testable hypotheses (Article 1). Second, I present findings from a survey study of a psychedelically experienced international Jewish sample on the link between attachment dimensions and psychedelic phenomenology (Study 1/Article 2). The study found consistent links between recollections of insensitive caregiving in childhood and the strength of psychedelic phenomenology (e.g., mystical and challenging experiences). Third, I report on the initial validation of a novel self-report instrument designed to measure empirically established general change mechanisms of psychotherapy and the type of experiences that catalyze psychotherapeutic change, much of which are relational, in the context of psychedelics (Study 2/Article 3). Results indicate that effective treatment involving psychedelics may draw on “common factors” of effective psychotherapies, with synergistic interactions of attachment-related phenomena and change processes theorized to culminate in “corrective experiences.” Fourth, I examine the potential dual role of therapeutic relational support in enabling therapeutic processes with psychedelics by buffering the potentially detrimental effect of life stress on psychedelic experiences and by mitigating the impact of challenging psychedelic experiences (Study 3/Article 4). I conclude with a discussion of future directions for a relational, attachment-informed psychedelic science, as well as its relevant clinical implications. 

Abstract [sv]

Under de senaste åren har det skett ett uppsving för neurobiologisk, psykiatrisk och psykologisk forskning om psykedelika (dvs. 5-HT 2A-receptoragonister), deras effekter på sinnesförnimmelser, humör och tankar, de risker som är förknippade med dem och deras terapeutiska potential. De evidensbaserade förklaringsmodellerna är dock fortfarande i sin linda, och det finns ett behov av lämpliga teoretiska ramverk för att förklara de underliggande processerna och mekanismerna för förändring. Denna avhandling beskriver en relationell psykedelisk vetenskap som inspirerats särskilt av anknytningsteorin, en av de mest bestående och inflytelserika teorierna inom psykologi som ”sträcker sig från de biologiska djupen av vårt varande till dess yttersta andliga räckvidd” (Holmes, 2014, s. 83). Årtionden av forskning stöder anknytningens roll för de många områden som är relevanta för psykedelika, inklusive livsloppsutveckling, självreglering och relaterade kognitiva processer, interpersonella relationer, psykoterapi och neurovetenskap, för att inte tala om de religiösa, andliga eller mystiska upplevelser som ofta kännetecknar psykedelisk fenomenologi. Först skisserar jag hur, inom en bredare kontextuell-erfarenhetsbaserad modell av psykedeliska terapieffekter, anknytningsteori kan hjälpa till att integrera viktiga resultat och begrepp från den psykedeliska litteraturen och generera testbara hypoteser (artikel 1). För det andra presenterar jag resultat från en enkätstudie av psykedeliskt erfarna judiska studiedeltagare om kopplingen mellan anknytningsdimensioner och psykedelisk fenomenologi. Studien fann konsekventa positiva samband mellan minnen av icke-lyhörd omvårdnad i barndomen och psykedelisk fenomenologi (t.ex. mystiska och utmanande upplevelser) (artikel 2). För det tredje rapporterar jag om den första valideringen av ett nytt självrapporteringsinstrument som är utformat för att mäta empiriskt etablerade allmänna förändringsmekanismer för psykoterapi och den typ av upplevelser som katalyserar psykoterapeutisk förändring, varav mycket är relationellt, i samband med psykedelika (artikel 3). Resultaten tyder på att effektiv behandling som involverar psykedelika kan dra nytta av ”gemensamma faktorer” för effektiva psykoterapier, med synergistiska interaktioner av anknytningsrelaterade fenomen och förändringsprocesser som kan kulminera i ”känslomässigt korrigerande erfarenheter”. För det fjärde undersöker jag den potentiellt dubbla roll som terapeutiskt relationsstöd kan fylla för att möjliggöra terapeutiska processer med psykedelika genom att buffra den potentiellt skadliga effekten av livsstress på psykedeliska upplevelser och genom att mildra effekterna av utmanande psykedeliska upplevelser (artikel 4). Jag avslutar med en diskussion om framtida riktningar för en relationell anknytningsgrundad psykedelisk vetenskap och relevanta kliniska konsekvenser.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Stockholm: Department of Psychology, Stockholm University , 2025. , p. 116
Keywords [en]
Psychedelics, attachment theory, psychotherapy, therapeutic processes, religion/spirituality
National Category
Psychology (Excluding Applied Psychology)
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:su:diva-248522ISBN: 978-91-8107-428-4 (print)ISBN: 978-91-8107-429-1 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:su-248522DiVA, id: diva2:2009088
Public defence
(English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-11-18 Created: 2025-10-26 Last updated: 2026-01-19Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Psychedelic Science of Spirituality and Religion: An Attachment-Informed Agenda Proposal
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Psychedelic Science of Spirituality and Religion: An Attachment-Informed Agenda Proposal
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2023 (English)In: The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, ISSN 1050-8619, Vol. 33, no 4, p. 259-276Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In this paper, we set an agenda for a psychedelic science of spirituality and religion based on attachment theory. Attachment theory proposes that people develop internal working models (IWMs) of interactions with others from their relational experiences with caregivers. Such IWMs then function as high-level priors or predictive models, enabling people, for better and for worse, to predict and organize their interpersonal and religious/spiritual relationships. One mechanism by which efficacious psychedelic interventions may work is by relaxing the grip of rigid, defensive priors (e.g. insecure IWMs with regard to others and God), further amplified by corrective relational experiences with the therapist, God, or others. We outline three key proposals to steer future research. First, individual differences in attachment security predict the phenomenology and integration of psychedelic experiences. Second, efficacious psychedelic therapy facilitates increased attachment security as a clinically relevant outcome. Third, attachment-related dynamics (e.g. a sense of connection to others/God/the universe, alleviation of attachment-related worries and defenses) are process-level mechanisms involved in the clinical utility of psychedelic treatment. Finally, we discuss the role of religion and spirituality in psychedelic experiences from an attachment perspective. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Taylor & Francis Group, 2023
Keywords
psychedelic science, spirituality, religion, attachment theory
National Category
Psychology
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-213103 (URN)10.1080/10508619.2022.2148061 (DOI)000893760700001 ()2-s2.0-85144032691 (Scopus ID)
Note

Cherniak’s work was supported by a 2021 SRF Source Award from the Source Research Foundation.

Available from: 2022-12-21 Created: 2022-12-21 Last updated: 2025-10-26Bibliographically approved
2. Perceived attachment history predicts psychedelic experiences: A naturalistic study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Perceived attachment history predicts psychedelic experiences: A naturalistic study
2024 (English)In: Journal of psychedelic studies, ISSN 2559-9283, Vol. 8, no 1, p. 82-91Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background and aims: Emerging research indicates that psychedelics may have therapeutic potential by fostering meaningful experiences that act as in fl ection points in people ' s narratives of personal development. However, psychedelic research has largely failed to address pertinent developmental considerations. We investigated whether attachment -related variables were associated with psychedelic experiences and whether psychedelic experiences moderated expected links between perceived attachment history and current adult attachment orientations. Methods: We administered an online survey to an international Jewish sample ( N = 185) with psychedelic experience. The survey included measures about recollection of attachment interactions with parents (perceived attachment history), adult attachment orientations (anxiety, avoidance), and psychedelic phenomenology (mystical experiences, challenging experiences, emotional breakthrough, ego dissolution, sensed presence) associated with respondents ' most memorable psychedelic experiences. Results: Perceptions of an insecure attachment history were positively linked to all measures of psychedelic phenomenology ( r ' s = 0.19 - 32, p ' s mostly < 0.01). In contrast, adult attachment orientations were unrelated to psychedelic phenomenology. Also, psychedelic phenomenology mostly did not moderate the links observed between perceptions of an insecure attachment history and adult attachment orientations. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that perceptions of early attachment experiences may be relevant to psychedelic phenomenology. However, subjective experiences associated with naturalistic psychedelic use do not typically attenuate links between a perceived insecure attachment history and attachment insecurity at present.

Keywords
phenomenology, attachment history, adult attachment orientations, earned security
National Category
Applied Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-231215 (URN)10.1556/2054.2024.00330 (DOI)001220193600001 ()2-s2.0-85187926516 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2024-06-18 Created: 2024-06-18 Last updated: 2025-10-26Bibliographically approved
3. Measuring psychotherapeutic processes in the context of psychedelic experiences: Validation of the General Change Mechanisms Questionnaire (GCMQ)
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Measuring psychotherapeutic processes in the context of psychedelic experiences: Validation of the General Change Mechanisms Questionnaire (GCMQ)
Show others...
2024 (English)In: Journal of Psychopharmacology, ISSN 0269-8811, E-ISSN 1461-7285, Vol. 38, no 5, p. 432-457Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Therapeutic and salutogenic effects of psychedelic drugs have been attributed to psychotherapeutic or psychotherapy-like processes that can unfold during the acute psychedelic experience and beyond. Currently, there are no psychometric instruments available to comprehensively assess psychotherapeutic processes (as conceptualized by empirical psychotherapy research) in the context of psychedelic experiences.

Aims: We report the initial validation of the General Change Mechanisms Questionnaire (GCMQ), a self-report instrument designed to measure five empirically established general change mechanisms (GCMs) of psychotherapy—(1) resource activation, (2) therapeutic relationship, (3) problem actuation, (4) clarification, and (5) mastery—in the context of psychedelic experiences.

Methods: An online survey in a sample of 1153 English-speaking and 714 German-speaking psychedelic users was conducted to evaluate simultaneously developed English- and German-language versions of the GCMQ.

Results: The theory-based factor structure was confirmed. The five GCMQ scales showed good internal consistency. Evidence for convergent validity with external measures was obtained. Significant associations with different settings and with therapeutic, hedonic, and escapist use motives confirmed the hypothesized context dependence of GCM-related psychedelic experiences. Indicating potential therapeutic effects, the association between cumulative stressful life events and well-being was significantly moderated by resource activation, clarification, and mastery. Factor mixture modeling revealed five distinct profiles of GCM-related psychedelic experiences.

Conclusion: Initial testing indicates that the GCMQ is a valid and reliable instrument that can be used in future clinical and nonclinical psychedelic research. The five identified profiles of GCM-related experiences may be relevant to clinical uses of psychedelics and psychedelic harm reduction.

Keywords
psychedelics, general change mechanisms, common factors, assessment, use motives
National Category
Psychiatry
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-232393 (URN)10.1177/02698811241249698 (DOI)001223086600001 ()38742761 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85193073723 (Scopus ID)
Available from: 2024-08-16 Created: 2024-08-16 Last updated: 2025-10-26Bibliographically approved
4. Therapeutic Context and Support during Psychedelic Use Moderate Links among Stress, Challenging Experiences, and Psychological Outcomes
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Therapeutic Context and Support during Psychedelic Use Moderate Links among Stress, Challenging Experiences, and Psychological Outcomes
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
National Category
Psychology
Research subject
Psychology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:su:diva-248521 (URN)
Available from: 2025-10-26 Created: 2025-10-26 Last updated: 2025-10-26

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