The island of Gotland houses a number of terrestrial mammalian species even though it was covered with ice during the last glacial period. The purpose of this study is to genetically analyse the mountain hare (Lepus timidus) to deduce its origin and genetic structure during different time periods, and also to discuss how it reached the island. A 130 base pair sequence of mitochondrial DNA from 38 prehistoric hares was analysed and compared to modern hares from different locations in Europe. The result shows a discrepancy among the samples creating two populations with different origin.

The grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) has been part of the Baltic Sea fauna for more than 9000 years and has ever since been subjected to extensive human hunting, particularly during the early phases of its presence in the Baltic Sea, but also in the early 20th century. In order to study their temporal genetic structure and to investigate whether there has been a genetically continuous grey seal population in the Baltic, we generated mitochondrial control region data from skeletal remains from ancient grey seals from the archaeological sites Stora Förvar (Sweden) and Neustadt (Germany) and compared these with modern grey seal data. We found that the majority of the Mesolithic grey seals represent haplotypes that is not found in contemporary grey seals, indicating that the Baltic Sea population went extinct, likely due to human overexploitation and environmental change. We hypothesize that grey seals recolonised the Baltic Sea from the North Sea. during the Bronze Age or Iron Age, and that the contemporary Baltic grey seal population is direct descendants of this recolonisation. Our study highlights the power of biomolecular archaeology to understand the factors that shape contemporary marine diversity. 

Hedeby Hochburg, borgen i Hedeby, har fått förhållandevis lite uppmärksamhet, jämfört med själva samhället i Hedeby. Utgrävningen från 2012 har dock väckt ett intresse, med ett antal frågor som behöver besvaras. I denna uppsats analyseras jordprover som samlats under utgrävningen, för att se om de kan visa något om den kronologiska relationen mellan borgvallen och gravarna i borgen. Tre metoder användes, FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy), röntgendiffraktion (XRD) och röntgenfluorescens (XRF). Resultaten från XRF och XRD visar på en rumslig relation mellan minst en av vallens konstruktionsfaser och nedsänkningen i ett lager innanför vallen. Relationen med gravarna är inte tydlig än, och analysen gav inga kronologiska ledtrådar. Resultatet kan användas som hypotes för vidare prövning i framti

Viking-age boat grave burials are a less common but still repeatedly used way to bury the dead during the late Iron Age. Boat burials are exceptional in many aspects, not only due to placing the individual in a boat with numerous burial gifts including animals, but also by burying the individual without prior cremation, a common practice during the Iron Age. The aim of this thesis is to genetically analyse inhumation boat graves and compare the genetic composition of the ancient individuals with modern populations through population genetic analyses. This will highlight these particular human remains in a mobility context. A total of 11 individuals was analysed, but only one yielded enough DNA for further statistical analyses. This one individual proved genetically exceptionally well preserved. The results clearly show that the individual (a female) has a genetic affinity to populations in northern Europe. However, the results do not discriminate between modern Baltic/Scandinavian populations, depending on the statistical test.

This study deals with the contribution of the genetic variant lactase persistence among Neolithic people from the Baltic Island Öland. Skeletal remains from twelve individuals went through DNA sequencing in order to find the mutation that allows adult individuals to digest milk sugar. The twelve individuals were chosen from two different Neolithic sites, where the archaeological and isotopic data suggest that the individuals from Köpingsvik were hunters and gatherers and the individuals from Resmo were early farmers. The individuals with the genetic variant lactase persistence can be described with selection and genetic flow.  Only five individuals produced results and the mutation was found in two of the subjects. All the individuals who were successfully sequenced came from Resmo, whereasno individuals from Köpingsvik yielded any results.  

Archaeologists have long noted the striking monumentality and large-scale efforts behind the Iron Age hilltop settlements. Yet, because of limited excavations, they represent a controversial part of the Migration Period society and much of their function remains hidden. This paper deals with questions concerning the inner organization and activities that took place within the Iron Age hilltop settlement at Runsa. The study is linked to the ongoing project ”Runsa fornborg –En befast centralplats i ostra Malardalen under folkvandringstid” which aims to investigate the socio-political functions of Runsa. In an attempt to establish a nuanced picture and distinguish space use within the hilltop settlement, a multi-variable approach is used. Alongside more traditional methods, element analysis by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) and lipid analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is emphasized.

Archaeological investigations and clear aerial photos have identified the presence of house foundations within several ringforts on the island of Öland, east of the Swedish mainland. One of them, Sandby borg, was selected for further investigations by means of a ground-penetrating radar (GRP) and magnetometry survey. A subsequent excavation was carried out to validate the geophysical results. The results of the geophysical survey clearly show the presence of 36 or 37 stone foundations for houses situated radially around the wall of the fort as well as of 16 or 17 similar house foundations in a central building group. The geophysical results also provided information on other buried features within the fort and also confirm the location of a third gate situated in the north-western part of the fort. The available evidence indicates that the ringfort was used for military purposes, or as a place of refuge in times of unrest, for a limited period of time during the late 5th century.

We used stable carbon isotopes to analyse individual variation in arctic fox diet. We extracted collagen from bones (the lower jaw), and measured stable carbon isotopes. The foxes came from three different localities: Iceland, where both microtines and reindeer are rare; west Greenland, where microtines are absent; and Sweden, where seat analyses showed the primary food to be microtine rodents and reindeer. The Icelandic samples included foxes from both coastal and inland habitats, the Swedish sample came from an inland area, and the Greenland sample from coastal sites. The spatial variation in the isotopic pattern followed a basic division between marine and terrestrial sources of protein. Arctic foxes from inland sites had delta(13)C values of -21.4 (Ice land) and -20.4 parts per thousand (Sweden), showing typical terrestrial values. Coastal foxes from Greenland had typical marine Values of -14.9 parts per thousand, whereas coastal foxes from Iceland had intermediate values of -17.7 parts per thousand. However, there was individual variation within each sample, probably caused by habitat heterogeneity and territoriality among foxes. The variation on a larger scale was related to the availability of different food items. These results were in accordance with other dietary analyses based on seat analyses. This is the first time that stable isotopes have been used to reveal individual dietary patterns. Our study also indicated that isotopic values can be used on a global scale.

This article discusses the jewellery worn by the goddess Freyja, the Brisingamen. The author has previously claimed that brising (“glowing”) is a heiti for “garnet”, in Latin called carbunculus and in Greek ἄνθραξ. The word men has been compared by other authors to the Old German word menni meaning a collar for a dog. However, its origin may have been the Menet (alternatively Menat or Menit) – originally the necklace of the cow god Hathor which in the Greco-Roman time was taken over by the fertility goddess Isis. The Menet necklace was mostly used in ceremonies together with the musical instrument sistrum, when the rattling of the Menet was an important element. The late Roma like bracteates or coin imitations and garnet jewellery were important elements, too. Owing to its many metal pendants the Brisingamen could have produced a sound, though in this case not rattling but rather a sound more like jingle bells. This paper presents several precious items of jewellery representing Freyja’s Brisingamen from the Viking period, the most exquisite examples being the necklaces from Hoen in Norway and Eketorp in Sweden

The aim of this thesis is to study 31 individuals from an early christian cemetery in Varnhem, Sweden and through the use of XRF, study the strontium concentrations and the strontium to calcium ratios in bone and use that as an indicator for diet. The material consists of femurs and teeth and through analyzing this I will compare previous dietary studies using stable carbon, nitrogene and sulphur isotope analyses to see wether quantitative strontium analysis can be used as a way to study diet in prehistoric societies. The conclusion is that XRF is not as thorough as an isotope study but it provides a general knowledge of what the population has been eating where we can determine which individuals has had diet consisting of more meat or terrestrial plants.

The role of ferrous metallurgy in ancient communities of the Circumpolar North is poorly understood due, in part, to the widespread assumption that iron technology was a late introduction, passively received by local populations. Analyses of two recently excavated sites in northernmost Sweden, however, show that iron technology already formed an integral part of the hunter-gatherer subsistence economy in Northern Fennoscandia during the Iron Age (c. 200-50 BC). Such developed knowledge of steel production and complex smithing techniques finds parallels in contemporaneous continental Europe and Western Eurasia. The evidence presented raises broader questions concerning the presence of intricate metallurgical processes in societies considered less complex or highly mobile.

This paper aims to investigate the embalming process and the Balanites aegyptiaca from two pottery originated in ancient Egypt. The two objects were from Medelhavsmuseet in Stockholm. Samples were collected and analyzed with Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry to identify which components the samples contained. The results show complex mixtures mainly consisting of resin origin from Pinaceae and the vegetable oils from the Balanites aegyptiaca.

This bachelor thesis is regarding spindle whorls and loom weights from late Iron Age-sites and Viking Age-sites in adjoining relation to the Viking Age town Birka. The basis of this thesis concerns in which amount spindle whorls and loom weights occur at Viking Age-sites in Birka's hinterland; it refers to geographical areas in Södermanland County and Uppland County. Spindle whorls influences the textile raw materials and the spun threads, furthermore loom weights influences the warp and the woven cloths. Which threads and which cloth that were produced at the Viking Age-sites in adjoining relation to Birka will be discussed by regarding the weight, form and size of the spindle whorls and loom weights (though fragmental artifacts occur). The thesis will concern trails of textile production from Birka's hinterland and furthermore an investigation about domestic imports of textiles from the mainland to Birka could have oocurred during the Viking Age. The Results indicates that farmbased textileproduction has occured in Birka's hinterland and furthermore numerous of the farms in the hinterland can be discussed as farms with the possibility to export textiles to Birka.

This paper deals with the embalming process in ancient Egypt. Samples were collected from six objects from Medelhavsmuseet in Stockholm. The objects were one supposed ladle and five different contents from pottery. Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and gas- chromatography/mass spectrometry was used to characterize the components of the materials. The result was then correlated with previously made analysis of embalming materials to discover similarities. The results show complex mixtures mainly consisting of resin from Pinaceae origin, also beeswax, vegetable oil and Castor oil. Some samples show differences in the mixture, one dominated by cholesterylacetat. The results of the ladle samples is comparable to previous samples from other analysis and can therefore be confirmed as an embalming ladle.

Determining whether a magnetic anomaly detected at an archaeological site has a natural or a cultural source can be quite challenging in some regions of the world because of magnetic variability related to soil development and differing rock/parent material types. Though not consistently recognized, lightning is one major source of magnetic anomalies on archaeology sites that has been consistently overlooked and misinterpreted. A case study from the high Bank Works in south-central Ohio, uSA shows the range of strike anomaly sizes, shapes, and intensities.

This study explores the relationship between dietary patterns and social structure in a pre-industrial mining community in Salberget, Sweden c. 1470 to 1600 A.D. using a combination of different research approaches and tools, including archaeology, osteology, bone chemistry and history. The correlation between demographic criteria (sex and age) and archaeological variables (burial type and burial location) shows that Salberget was a highly stratified community. Group diets were investigated through analyses of stable isotopes (carbon, δ ¹³C, and nitrogen, δ ¹⁵N) of bone collagen from a sub-sample of individuals buried at the site (n = 67), interpreted alongside data from human dental lesions and deficiencies, animal bone waste and information on eating habits extracted from the extensive historical documents regarding mining activities at Salberget. These integrated analyses provide a clear association between social status and diet and confirm that social status, and to a lesser extent sex, gender and age, likely governed food choice and opportunity in this diverse community.

This paper contains geophysical analysis of the largest town square in Sigtuna, Sweden. The studied area is approximately 736 m². The purpose of the study was to search for early medieval house remnants and to possibly find structures matching those found during excavations in other parts of the town. The hypothesis is that the town of Sigtuna was planned and that the yards of the town were put out in a special pattern following the main street, which is the same as today. During the day of the geophysical prospection the weather conditions were not optimal. A lot of water at the surface disturbed the instrument and gave a blurred image. It turned out that a lot of contemporary pipes and a large traffic island from the 1930s covered the area. Archaeological structures could only be seen in smaller areas in between later structures. Vague oblong structures could be seen, as well as a distinct smaller square on the eastern part of the area. A large rectangle close to the main street was also observed. None of these structures could be seen in modern maps or photographs and are therefore marked as something that could be of archaeological interest. Some of the structures that were noted were probably part of the original medieval town plan, as judged by their size and location.

Sandby borg, an Iron Age ringfort on Öland, Sweden has been and is still at the center of attention in media and archaeological research. The massacre uncovered at the site during recent years opens many doors for analyses on the Migration Period (c. 400-550 AD) Iron Age skeletal remains. Eighteen teeth (molars) from 12 individuals and three rodent teeth were chosen for strontium (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) analyses. This was done to establish whether these individuals were locals or non-locals to Öland. The analyses displayed a, for the most part, local ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio. Two non-locals were identified, as well as a pattern of higher ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr peaks on numerous of the individuals during a certain age span, which could indicate a local weaning process with a special food.

In the Arctic part of the Nordic region, cultivated crops need to specifically adapt to adverse and extreme climate conditions, such as low temperatures, long days, and a short growing season. Under the projected climate change scenarios, higher temperatures and an earlier spring thaw will gradually allow the cultivation of plants that could not be previously cultivated there. For millennia, Pea (Pisum sativum L.) has been a major cultivated protein plant in Nordic countries but is currently limited to the southern parts of the region. However, response and adaptation to the Arctic day length/light spectrum and temperatures are essential for the productivity of the pea germplasm and need to be better understood. This study investigated these factors and identified suitable pea genetic resources for future cultivation and breeding in the Arctic region. Fifty gene bank accessions of peas with a Nordic landrace or cultivar origin were evaluated in 2-year field trials at four Nordic locations in Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and Norway (55 degrees to 69 degrees N). The contrasting environmental conditions of the trial sites revealed differences in expression of phenological, morphological, crop productivity, and quality traits in the accessions. The data showed that light conditions related to a very long photoperiod partly compensated for the lack of accumulated temperature in the far north. A critical factor for cultivation in the Arctic is the use of cultivars with rapid flowering and maturation times combined with early sowing. At the most extreme site (69 degrees N), no accession reached full maturation. Nonetheless several accessions, predominantly landraces of a northern origin, reached a green harvest state. All the cultivars reached full maturation at the sub-Arctic latitude in northern Sweden (63 degrees N) when plants were established early in the season. Seed yield correlated positively with seed number and aboveground biomass, but negatively with flowering time. A high yield potential and protein concentration of dry seed were found in many garden types of pea, confirming their breeding potential for yield. Overall, the results indicated that pea genetic resources are available for breeding or immediate cultivation, thus aiding in the northward expansion of pea cultivation. Predicted climate changes would support this expansion.

The history of human inbreeding is controversial.(1) In particular, how the development of sedentary and/or agricultural societies may have influenced overall inbreeding levels, relative to those of hunter-gatherer communities, is unclear.(2-5) Here, we present an approach for reliable estimation of runs of homozygosity (ROHs) in genomes with >= 3x mean sequence coverage across >1 million SNPs and apply this to 411 ancient Eurasian genomes from the last 15,000 years.(5-34) We show that the frequency of inbreeding, as measured by ROHs, has decreased over time. The strongest effect is associated with the Neolithic transition, but the trend has since continued, indicating a population size effect on inbreeding prevalence. We further show that most inbreeding in our historical sample can be attributed to small population size instead of consanguinity. Cases of high consanguinity were rare and only observed among members of farming societies in our sample. Despite the lack of evidence for common consanguinity in our ancient sample, consanguineous traditions are today prevalent in various modem-day Eurasian societies,(1, 35-37) suggesting that such practices may have become widespread within the last few millennia.

The demographic history of East-Central Europe after the Neolithic period remains poorly explored, despite this region being on the confluence of various ecological zones and cultural entities. Here, the descendants of societies associated with steppe pastoralists form Early Bronze Age were followed by Middle Bronze Age populations displaying unique characteristics. Particularly, the predominance of collective burials, the scale of which, was previously seen only in the Neolithic. The extent to which this re-emergence of older traditions is a result of genetic shift or social changes in the MBA is a subject of debate. Here by analysing 91 newly generated genomes from Bronze Age individuals from present Poland and Ukraine, we discovered that Middle Bronze Age populations were formed by an additional admixture event involving a population with relatively high proportions of genetic component associated with European hunter-gatherers and that their social structure was based on, primarily patrilocal, multigenerational kin-groups.

Den här uppsatsen behandlar ett antal individer begravda mellan 800 e.Kr. och 1150 e.Kr i ett tidigt kristet gravfält kring ruinen av Varnhems gårdskyrka. Av speciellt intresse är den placeringen som gravarna har i förhållande till kyrkomurarna och vad dessa placeringar innebär statusmässigt. Analys av stabila isotoper har därför utförts på de manliga individerna  så att deras diet kan faställas och agera som en markör för vad som känneteckas som hög och lågstatus bland de begravda männen i Varnhem.  

Pottery was a hunter-gatherer innovation that first emerged in East Asia between 20,000 and 12,000 calibrated years before present(1,2) (cal BP), towards the end of the Late Pleistocene epoch, a period of time when humans were adjusting to changing climates and new environments. Ceramic container technologies were one of a range of late glacial adaptations that were pivotal to structuring subsequent cultural trajectories in different regions of the world, but the reasons for their emergence and widespread uptake are poorly understood. The first ceramic containers must have provided prehistoric hunter-gatherers with attractive new strategies for processing and consuming foodstuffs, but virtually nothing is known of how early pots were used. Here we report the chemical analysis of food residues associated with Late Pleistocene pottery, focusing on one of the best-studied prehistoric ceramic sequences in the world, the Japanese Jomon. We demonstrate that lipids can be recovered reliably from charred surface deposits adhering to pottery dating from about 15,000 to 11,800 cal BP (the Incipient Jomon period), the oldest pottery so far investigated, and that in most cases these organic compounds are unequivocally derived from processing freshwater and marine organisms. Stable isotope data support the lipid evidence and suggest that most of the 101 charred deposits analysed, from across the major islands of Japan, were derived from high-trophic-level aquatic food. Productive aquatic ecotones were heavily exploited by late glacial foragers(3), perhaps providing an initial impetus for investment in ceramic container technology, and paving the way for further intensification of pottery use by hunter-gatherers in the early Holocene epoch. Now that we have shown that it is possible to analyse organic residues from some of the world's earliest ceramic vessels, the subsequent development of this critical technology can be clarified through further widespread testing of hunter-gatherer pottery from later periods.

The arctic fox population in Fennoscandia is on the verge of going extinct after not being able to recover from a severe bottleneck at the end of the 19th century. The Siberian arctic fox population, on the other hand, is large and unthreatened. In order to resolve questions regarding gene flow between, and genetic variation within the populations, a 294 bp long part of the mitochondrial hypervariable region 1 was sequenced. This was done for 17 Swedish, 15 Siberian and two farmed foxes. Twelve variable nucleotide sites were observed, which resulted in 10 different haplotypes. Three haplotypes were found in Sweden and seven haplotypes were found in Siberia. An analysis of molecular variance showed a weak, but significant, differentiation between the populations. No difference in haplotype diversity was found between the populations. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that the three Swedish haplotypes were not monophyletic compared to the Siberian haplotypes. These results indicate a certain amount of gene flow between the two populations. both before and after the bottleneck. Restocking the Fennoscandian population with arctic foxes from Siberia might therefore be a viable option.

Investigating Neolithic pottery and vessel use could elucidate the duality between the farming Funnel Beaker Culture and the hunter-gathering Pitted Ware Culture during the Neolithic. The two archaeological groups differ on several accounts that are of great importance when interpreting past societies. However, it is the suggested differential subsistence economies that are of specific interest for this particular investigation. A comparative study based on the absorbed fatty acids in the ceramic material from two different Neolithic sites addresses the food cultures of the farming subsistence and the contrasting, contemporary hunter-gatherer society and the differences in resource-use. The investigation argues that food acts as an active social binder, and stress the importance of incorporating this aspect when discussing past cultures. The results of the analyses display difference in vessel use between the two sites as well as an intra-site difference at Korsnäs. It is argued that these differences are indicative of deviating food-cultures and spatial organisation at Korsnäs respectively. These results are combined with the previously conducted osteological analyses and stable isotopic analyses an approach that contribute to a more dynamic understanding of the Neolithic food cultures than what has been available before. Investigating Neolithic pottery and vessel use could elucidate the duality between the farming Funnel Beaker Culture and the hunter-gathering Pitted Ware Culture during the Neolithic. The two archaeological groups differ on several accounts that are of great importance when interpreting past societies. However, it is the suggested differential subsistence economies that are of specific interest for this particular investigation. A comparative study based on the absorbed fatty acids in the ceramic material from two different Neolithic sites addresses the food cultures of the farming subsistence and the contrasting, contemporary hunter-gatherer society and the differences in resource-use. The investigation argues that food acts as an active social binder, and stress the importance of incorporating this aspect when discussing past cultures. The results of the analyses display difference in vessel use between the two sites as well as an intra-site difference at Korsnäs. It is argued that these differences are indicative of deviating food-cultures and spatial organisation at Korsnäs respectively. These results are combined with the previously conducted osteological analyses and stable isotopic analyses an approach that contribute to a more dynamic understanding of the Neolithic food cultures than what has been available before.

Both leprosy and tuberculosis were prevalent in Europe during the first millennium but thereafter leprosy declined. It is not known why this occurred, but one suggestion is that cross-immunity protected tuberculosis patients from leprosy. To investigate any relationship between the two diseases, selected archaeological samples, dating from the Roman period to the thirteenth century, were examined for both Mycobacterium leprae and Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA, using PCR. The work was carried out and verified in geographically separate and independent laboratories. Several specimens with palaeopathological signs of leprosy were found to contain DNA from both pathogens, indicating that these diseases coexisted in the past. We suggest that the immunological changes found in multi-bacillary leprosy, in association with the socio-economic impact on those suffering from the disease, led to increased mortality from tuberculosis and therefore to the historical decline in leprosy.

Marine reservoir effects (MRE) have the potential to increase the dating uncertainty of humans incorporating marine resources into their diets. Here we attempt a novel dental wiggle-match model to reduce dating uncertainty of seven individuals from the Resmo megalithic tomb (Öland, Sweden) and to test whether this model can be used to calculate MRE from a single tooth. Previous stable isotope ratio studies of these individuals demonstrated that their diets changed, between more or less marine protein, during the early years of their lives. Several incremental samples of dentine from each individual were subjected to radiocarbon dating and stable isotope ratio analysis. An OxCal model was designed that makes use of the known formation sequence of human teeth to reduce overall dating uncertainty. The new dental wiggle-match model is able to reduce overall dating uncertainty in all of the sampled individuals compared to more conventional 14C calibration methods. A utility of the dental wiggle model to estimate marine reservoir effects without associated faunal material is also demonstrated, with promising results.

This essay reports from a study using XRF of thirteen glass fragments found in the harbour of

the Viking town of Birka some interesting observations were made. Two fragments are

coloured using antimony and manganese. One fragment could have been made using wood

ash glass. Two fragments contain chromium which might imply provenance from Lorraine-

Alsace.

Leprosy is a chronic infection of the skin and peripheral nerves caused by the pathogen Mycobacterium leprae. Its impact on human populations and societies of the past as well as its phylogeographic patterns around the world – at least in modern times – has been well documented. This slow growing bacterium has been shown to exist in distinct ‘SNP types’ that occur in relatively defined parts of the globe. The routes that the disease followed in the past are, however, still uncertain. This study of ancient-DNA typing of archaeological human remains from Sweden dated to early Medieval times provides genetic evidence that a transmission of M. leprae ‘SNP subtype’ 2G – found mainly in Asia – took or had already taken place at that time from the Middle East to Scandinavia. This finding is unique in the history of leprosy in Europe. All human specimens from this continent – both modern and ancient – that have been tested to date showed that the one responsible for the infection strains of M. leprae belong to ‘SNP type’ 3, whereas our results show that there were some European populations that were hosts to bacteria representing ‘SNP type’ 2 of the species as well.

The Middle Iron Age on Öland (around 200-550 AD) is often regarded as a prosperous period witha wealth based on animal husbandry. In this study charred cereals from several Iron Age sites atÖland are studied to answer questions about prehistoric diet and agricultural practices. Themethod used is stable isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen in the cereals, and one further aim ofthe study is to evaluate this method. The results suggest that there is little need for pre-treatment ofcereals before isotope analysis. Most of the grains analyzed were hulled barley and in all sites thereare indications of intensive manuring, as would be expected in permanent field agriculture. Thering forts of the period may here have been places where an agricultural surplus was gathered.Concerning human diet, the isotope values indicate cereals may have been an important part.Crops may also have been used to feed the livestock, possibly with secondary products like straws,and likely to a different extent in different animal species. Finally, the sites from the Middle IronAge all appears to have been abandoned. Heavy dependence on animal manure may havedecreased the resilience of agriculture, making it more vulnerable to unexpected changes, forexample the climate downturn after 536 AD.

This paper examines peat that was discovered next to a skeleton dug out in wetlands next to lake Bokaren in Uppland, Sweden, in 2015. The skeleton was that of a man from the Roman Iron Age. It was found in fen peat, where soft tissue decomposes but bones are often well preserved.

The elemental composition of the peat was examined using X-ray fluorescence. It was found that the composition of heavy elements was likely a result from exchange between the body and the peat. There were also trace elements, some of which may originate from medicine or other use. There may also be traces of brass. X-ray diffraction however revealed no trace of mineral formation.

The lipid content of the peat was examined using Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry. Fatty acids, cholesterol and degradation products expected from a waterlogged, anaerobic environment where discovered. Dark-colored peat surrounding body was found to contain lipids from the body and lipids from the inside of the skull where particularly well preserved. Theoretically, both lipid analysis and XRF could be used to locate bodies in fen peat by sampling.

From the lipid analysis, one may draw the conclusion that it was a primary burial and that the body was put in a wet context short time after death. Efforts may have been taken to prevent the body from floating to the surface. The head of the body probably came off during decomposition with soft tissue remaining.

Sigtuna’s trade and production has been the subject of an increasing amount of archaeological investigations during the last 30 years. However, most of the research has been conductedregarding the buildings, coin mints and precious metal objects. This thesis will instead research one of the basics of the production, namely the iron. By reviewing the iron objectsand currency bars from house X in the city block Humlegården 3. Through high precision studies with conservation and scanning electron microscope I will be able to come one step closer to identifying what sort of items were produced on the site and discerning what status and function the smithy had. I will also investigate the possibility to track the origin of the iron. 

The aim of this paper was to study fourteen pottery sherds found at the site of Ayia Irini in northern Cyprus using Gas chromatography- Mass spectrometry. Ayia Irini has by the archaeologists of the Swedish Cyprus Expedition been interpreted as a sanctuary, with activity spanning from the Late Bronze Age throughout the Cypriot Iron Age.

The results showed traces of vegetable lipids in almost all samples, and traces of lipids from terrestrial animals in all but two. One sample showed traces of resin. Several samples were contaminated by different components found in plastics, such as plasticizers. No obvious common denominators were found for samples of similar pottery type or similar dating. The analysis yielded results of differing quality in all samples. However, usable data was collected from all except one sample, which was too heavily contaminated to glean any clear traces of organic residue from the time of deposit.